DESCRIPTIVE  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

LABORATORY 

r   \  AM;  , 


"Z"*  I  i 


University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


A 

SHORT 

INTRODUCTION 

TO 

Englifh 

GRAMMAR. 


WITH 


Critical  Jlotes* 


BY    THE 

Right  Rev.  ROBERT  LOWTH,  D.  D. 
Lord  Bi/fjop  of  Oxford. 


e<  Nam  ipfutn  Latine  loqui,  eft  illud  quidem  in  tnagna  laude 
ponendum  ;  fed  non  tarn  fua  fponte,  quam  quod  eft  a  plerifque 
negle&um.  Non  enim  tarn  prseclarum  eft  fare  Latine,  quam. 
turpe  nefcire;  neque  tarn  id  mihi  oratoris  boni,  quam  civis 
Romani,  proprium  videtur."  CICERO. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
PRINTED  uv  R.  AITKEN,  No.  az,  MARKET  STREET. 

1799. 

Price  three  Shillings. 


C  iH  J 


THE 

PREFACE. 


A  HE  Englifh  language  hath  been  much  cultivated 
during  the  lafttwo  hundred  years.  It  hath  been  confi- 
derably  polifhed  and  refined ;  its  bounds  have  been  greatly 
enlarged  ;  its  energy,  variety,  richnefs  and  elegance, 
have  been  abundantly  proved,  by  numberlefs  trials,  in 
verjfe  and  in  profe,  upon  all  fubjecls,  and  in  every  kind 
of  ftyle  :  but,  whatever  other  improvements  it  may  have 
received,  it  hath  made  no  advances  in  grammatical  accu 
racy.  Hooker  is  one  of  the  earlieft  writers,  of  confider- 
able  note,  within  the  period  above  mentioned  :  Let  his 
writings  be  compared  with  the  bed  of  thofe  of  mor^ 
modern  date  ',  and,  I  believe,  it  will  be  found,  that,  in 
corre&nefs,  propriety  and  purity  of  Englim  ftyle,  he 
hath  hardly  been  iarpaffed,  or  even  equalled,  by  any 
of  his  fucceflbrs. 

It  is  now  about  fifty  years,  fince  Dr.  Swift  made  a 
public  remonftrance,  addrefTed  tovtbe  Earl  of  Oxford, 
then  Lord  Treafurer,- concerning  the  imperfeft  ftate  of 
our  language  ;  alledging  in  particular,  ««  that  in  many 
"  inftances  it  offended  agkinfl  ever^&bart  of  grammar." 

Swift 


iv  PREFACE, 

Swift  muft  be  allowed  to  have  been  a  good  judge  of  this 
matter;  to  which  he  was  himfelf  very  attentive,  both 
in  his  own  writings,  and  in  his  remarks  upon  thofe  of 
his  friends  :  He  is  one  of  the  mod  correct,  and  perhaps 
the  beft,  of  our  profe  writers.  Indeed  the  juftnefs  of 
this  complaint,  as  far  as  I  can  find,  hath  never  yet  been 
queftioned  j  and  yet  no  effectual  method  hath  hitherto 
been  taken  to  redrefs  the  grievance  which  was  the  object 
of  it. 

But  let  us  confider,  how,  and  in  what  extent,  we 
are  to  understand  this  charge  brought  againft  the  Englifh 
language  :  for  the  author  feems  not  to  have  explained 
himfelf  with  fufrklent  clearnefs  and  precifion  on  this 
head.  Does  it  mean  that  the  Englifh  language,  as  it 
is  fpoken  by  the  politeft  part  of  the  nation,  and  as  it 
Hands  in  the  writings  of  the  moft  approved  authors, 
often  offends  againft  every  part  of  grammar  .?  Thus  far, 
I  am  afraid,  the  charge  is  true.  Or  does  it  further  im 
ply,  that  our  language  is  in  its  nature  irregular  and  capri 
cious  ;  not  hitherto  fubjecl:,  nor  eafily  reducible,  to  a 
fyftem  of  rules  ?  In  this  refpect,  I  am  perfuaded,  the 
charge  is  wholly  without  foundation. 

The  Englifh  language  is  perhaps  of  all  the  preftnt 
European  languages  by  much  the  moft  fimple  in  its 
form  and  conftruction.  Of  all  the  ancient  languages 
extant  that  is  the  moft  fimple,  which  is  undoubtedly  the 
moft  ancient  j  but  even  that  language  itfelf  does  jiot 
equal  the  Eng'iih^n  fimplicity. 

The 


PREFACE.  v 

The  words  of  the  Englifh  language  are  perhaps  fub-, 
ject  to  fewer  variations  from  their  original  form,  than 
thofe  of  any  other.      Its  fubftantives  have  but  one  vari 
ation  of  cafe  ;  nor  have  they  any  diftinction  of  gender, 
befide  that  which  nature  hath  made.     Its  adjectives  ad 
mit  of  no  change,  at  all,  except  that  which  exprefles  the 
degrees,  of  comparifon.     All .  the  poffible  variations  of 
the  original  form  of  the  verb  are  not  above  fix  or  feven  ;, 
whereas  in  many  languages  they  amount  to  fome  hun 
dreds,  and  almoit  the  whole  bufmefs  of  modes,  times, 
and  voices,  is  managed  with  great  eafe  by  the  ailiftance 
of  eight  or  nine  commodious  little,  verbs,  called  from 
their  ufe  auxiliaries.    The.conftruction  of  this  language 
is  fo   eafy  and  obvious,,   that,   our    grammarians  have 
thought  it  hardly  worth  while  to  give  us  auy  thing  like 
a  regular  and  fyftematical  fyntax.     The  Englifh  Gram 
mar  which  hath  been  lad1  prefented  to  the  public,  and 
by  the  perfon  belt  qualified  to  have,  given  us  a  perfect 
cue,  comprifes  the  whole  Syntax  in  ten  lines  :   For  this 
reafon  ;  "  becaufe  otir  language  has  fo  little  inflexion, 
"  that  its  contraction  neither  requires  nor  admits  ma- 
"  ny  rules."     In  truth,  th'e  ealier  any  fubject  is  in  its 
own  nature,  the  harder  is-  it  to  make  it  more  eafy  by 
explanation  ;  and  nothing  is  more  unncceflary,  and  at 
the  fame  commonly  more  difficult,  than  to  monflration . 
in  form  of  a  proportion  almoft  felf-evident. 

It' doth  not  then. ..proceed  from  any  peculiar  irregu 
larity  or  difficulty  of  our  language,  that  the  general  prac 
tice  both  of  fpeaking  and  writing  it  is  chargeable  with. 
^.     It.  is  net  the   language,  but- the  practice. 
A   2,  that: 


vi  P  R  E  F  A  C  E. 

that  is  in  fault.  The  truth  is,  grammar  is  very  much 
neglected  among  us :  and  it  is  not  the  difficulty  of  the 
language,  but  on  the  contrary  the  fimplicity  and  facility 
of  it,  that  occafions  this  neglect.  Were  the  language 
lefs  eafy  and  fimple,  we  mould  find  ourfelves  under  a 
neceffity  of  fKidying  it  with  more  care  and  attention. 
But  as  it  is,  we  take  it  for  granted,  that  we  have  a 
competent  knowledge  and  fkill,  and  are  able  to  acquit 
ourfelves  properly,  in  our  own  native  tongue;  a  faculty, 
folely  acquired  by  ufe,  conducted  by  habit,  and  tried  by 
the  ear,  carries  us  on  without  reflection  ;  we  meet  with 
no  rubs  or  difficulties  in  our  way,  or  we  do  not  perceive 
them  ;  we  find  ourfelves  able  to  go  on  without  rules, 
and  we  do  not  fo  much  as  fufpect,  that  we  ftand  in 
need  of  them. 

A  grammatical  ftudy  of  our  own  language  makes  no 
part  of  the  ordinary  method  of  inftrudion,  which  we 
pafs  through  in  our  childhood ;  and  it  is  very  feldom 
we  apply  ourlelves  to  it  afterward.  Yet  the  want  of  it 
will  not  be  effectually  fupplied  by  any  other  advantages 
whatfoever.  Much  practice  in  the  polite  world,  and  a 
general  acquaintance  with  the  belt  authors,  are  good 
helps  ;  but  alone  will  hardly  be  fufficient :  We  have  wri 
ters,  who  have  enjoyed  thefe  advantages  in  their  full 
extent,  and  yet  cannot  be  recommended  as  models  of 
an  accurate  ftyle.  Much  lefs  then  will,  what  is  com 
monly  called  learning,  ferve  the  purpofe ;  that  is,  a  critical 
knowledgeof  ancient  languages,  and  much  reading  of  an 
cient  authors  :  The  greateit  critic  and  mod  able  gramma 
rian  of  the  hft  nge,  when  he  came  to  apply  his  learning  and 

criticifm 


PREFACE.  Vii 

criticifm  to  an  Englifh  author,  was  frequently  at  a  lofs 
in  matters  of  ordinary  ufe  and  common  conftrudion.  in  , 
his  own  vernaztifar  idiom. 

But  perhaps  the   notes  fabjoined  to  the  following 
pages   will  fornifii  a  more  convincing  argument,  than 
any  thing  that  can  be  faid  here,  both  of  the. truth  of 
the  charge  of  inaccuracy  brought  againft  our  language,, 
as  it  fubfifts  in  pra-flice  ;  and  of  the  neceility  of  invefti- 
gating  the  principles  of  it,  and  ftudying  it  grammatically, 
if  we   would    attain    to  a   due  degree  of  fkill  in  it.    Il 
is  with  reafon  expelled  of  every  perfon  of  a  liberal  edu 
cation,  and  it  is  indifpenfably  required  of  every  one  who 
undertakes  to  inform  or  entertain  the  public,  thflt  he 
fhould  be  able,  to  exprefs  himfelf  with  propriety  and 
accuracy.      It  will  evidently  appear  from  thefe  notes, 
that  our  bed  authors  have  committed  grofs  miftakes,for 
want  of  a  due  knowledge  of  Engliih  grammar,  or  at 
lead  of  a  proper  attention  to  the  rules  of  it.     The  ex^ 
amples  there  given  are   fuch  as   occurred  in   reading, 
without  any  very  curious  or  methodical  examination  i 
and  they  might  eafily  have  been  much  increased  in  num 
ber  by  any  one,  who  had  leimre  or  phlegm  enough  to 
go  through  a  regular  courfe  of  reading  with  this  parti 
cular  view.     However,  I  believe,  they  may  be  fufE- 
cient  to  anfwer  the  purpofe  intended  ;  to  evince  the  ne- 
cefiity  of  the  ftudy  of  grammar  in  our  own  language  ; 
and  to  admonifh  thofe,  who  fet  up  for  authors  among 
us,  that  they  would  do  well  to  coniider  this  part  of 
learning  as  an  cbjecl  not  altogether  beneath  their  regard. 

The 


viii  PREFACE.. 

The  principal  defign  of  a  grammar  of  any  language, 
is  to  teach  us  to  exprefs  ourfelves  with  propriety  in  that 
language  j  and  to  enable  us  to  judge  of  every  phrafe  and 
form  of  conftruction,  whether  it  be  right  or  not.  The 
plain  way  of  doing  this  is,  to  lay  down  rules,  and  to 
illuftrate  them  by  examples.  But,  befides  mewing, 
what  is  right,  the  matter  may  be  further  explained  by 
pointing  out  what  is  wrong.  I  will  not  take  upon  ma 
to  fay,  whether  we  have  any  Grammar  that  fufficiently. 
inftrucls  us  by  rule  and  example;  but  I  am  fure  we 
have  none,  that  in  the  manner  here  attempted,  teaches 
us  what  is  right,  by  mewing  what  is  wrong  ;  though 
this  perhaps  may  prove  tbe_  more  ufeful  and  .effectual, 
method  of  instruction.,. 

Befide  this  principal  defign  of  Grammar  in  .our  own 
language,  there  is  a  fecondary.ufe,  to  which  it  may  be 
applied;. and  which,  I  think,  is, not  attended  to  as  it 
deferves:  the  facilitating  of  the  acquifition  .of  other  lan 
guages,  whether  ancient  or  modern. .  A  good  founda 
tion  in  the  general  principles  of  grammar,  is  in  the  firft 
place  neceiTary  for  all  thofe  who  are  initiated  in  a 
learned  education;  and  for  all  others  like  wife,  who 
mail  have  occafion  to  furniih  themfelves  with  the  know 
ledge  of  modern  languages.  Uni-verfal  Grammar  cannot 
be  taught  tibftra&edly,  it  mud:  be  done  with  reference 
to  fome  language  already  known;  in  which  the  terms 
are  to  be  explained,  and-  the  rules  exemplified...  The 
learner  is  fuppofed  to  be  unacquainted  with  all,  but  hi,s 
native  tongue;  and  in  what  other,,  confident  with  rea- 
fon  and  common  fen fe,  can  you  go  about  to  explain  it 

to 


PREFACE.  ix 

to  him  ?  When  he  has  a  competent  knowledge  of  the 
main  principles  of  grammar  in  general,  exemplified  in 
his  own  language;  he  then  will  apply  himfelf  with  great 
advantage  to  the  ftu.dy  of  any  other.  To  enter  at  once 
upon  the  fcience  of 'grammar,  and  the  iludy  of  a  foreign 
language,  is  to  encounter  two  difficulties  together,  each 
ofcyhich  would  be  much  leflened  by  being  taken  feparate- 
ly,  and  in  its  proper  order.  For  thefe  plain  reafons,  a. 
Competent  grammatical  knowledge,  is  the  true  founda 
tion,  upon  which  all  literature,  properly  fo  called,  ought 
to  be  raifed.  If  this  method  were  adapted  in  our 
fcliocls,  if  children  were  Srft  taught  the  common  prin~ 
ciples  of  grammar,  by  fome  fliort  and  clear  fyfrem  of 
Englim  Grammar,  which  happily  by  its  fimplicity  and 
facility,  is  perhaps  fitter  than  that  of  any  other  language 
for  fuch  a.purpole;  they  would  have  fome  notion  of 
what  they  were  going  about,  when  they  fiiould  enter 
into  the  Latin  Grammar;  and  would  hardly  be  enga 
ged  fo  .many  years  as  they  now  are,  in  that  mod  irk- 
fomeand  difficult  part  of  literature,  with  fo  much  labour 
of  the  memory,  and  with  &  little  affiftance  of  the  un- 
derflanding. 

A.  defign  fomewhat  of  this  kind,  gave  occafion  to 
the  following  little  fyftem,  intended  merely  for  a  pri 
vate  and  domefHc  ufe.  The  chief  end  of  it  was  to 
explain  the  general  principles  of  grammar,  as  clearly 
and  intelligibly  as  poffible.  In  the  definitions,  there 
fore,  eafmefs  and  perfpicuity,  have  been  fometimes 
preferred  to  logical  exactnefs.  The  common  diviilons 
have  been  complied  v/ith>  as  far  as  reafon  and  truth 


x  PREFACE. 

would  permrt.  The  known  and  received  terms  have 
been  retained;  except  in  one  or  two  in  fiances,  where 
others  offered  themfelves,  which  feemed  much  more 
fignificant.  All  difquifitious  which  appeared  to  have 
more  of  fubtilty,.  than  of  ufefulnefs  in  them,  have  been 
avoided.  In  a  word,  it  was  calculated  for  the  ufe  of 
the  learner,  even  of  the  lowed  clafs.  Thofe,  wfco; 
would  enter  more  deeply  into  this  fubjecl,  will,  find  it 
fully  and  accurately  handled,  with  the  g^eateft  accute-- 
nefs,  of  inveftigation,  perfpicuity  of  explication,  and 
elegance  of  method,  in  a  treatife  entitled  HERMES,  by 
JAMES  HARRIS,  Efq.  the  moil  beautiful  and. perfect 
example  of  analyfis,  that  has  been  exhibited  fines. the 
days  of  dr'tflotle*. 

The  author  is>  greatly  obliged  to  •  feveral  learned  gen 
tlemen,  who  have  favored  him  with  their  remarks  upon 
the  iirft  edition  ;  which  was  indeed  principally  defigned 
to  procure  their  afliftance,  and  to  try  the  judgment  of 
the  public.  He  hath  endeavored;  to : weigh  their  obfer- 
yations,  without  prejudice  or  partiality  ;,  and  to  make 
the  b'eft  ufe  of  the  lights  which  they  have- afforded  him.' 
He  hath  been  enabled'to  correcl:  feveral  miilak'es,  and 
cncoiHraged  carefully  to  revife  the  whole*  and  to  give  it 
all  the.  improvement  which  his  prefent  mateiials  can 
furnifli.  He  hopes  for  the  continuance  of  thair  favor, 
as  he  is  fenfible  there  will  (till  be  abundant  occafion  for 
it.  A  fyftem  of  this  kind,  arifmg  from  the  collection 
and  arrangement  of  a  multitude  of  minute  particulars, 
which  often  elude  the  rnoft  careful  fearch,  and  fome- 
times  efcape  obfervatipn,  when  they  are  mpft  obvious, 

mud 


PREFACE.  xi 

muft  always  ftaad  in  need  of  improvement.  It  is  in 
deed  the  neceflary  condition  of  every  work  of  human 
art  of  fcience,  fmall  as  well  as  great,  to  advance  to 
wards  perfection  by  flow  degrees ;  by  an  approxima 
tion,  which,  though  it  ftill  may  carry  it  forward,  yet 
will  certainly  never  bring  k  to  the  point  to  which  k 
tends. 


A 

SHORT 

INTRODUCTION 


Grammar* 


GRAMMAR. 

GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  rightly  exprefimg 
our  thoughts  by  words. 

Grammar  in  general,  or  universal  grammar, 
explains  the  principles,  which  are  common  to 
all  languages. 

The  grammar  of  any  particular  language,  as 
the  Engliih  Grammar,  applies  thofe  common  prin 
ciples  to  that  particular  language,  according  to 
the  eftablifned  ufage  or  cuftom  of  it. 

Grammar  treats  of  fentences  ;  and  of  the  fe- 
veral  parts  of  which  they  are  compounded. 

Sentences  confift  of  words  ;   words,  of  one  or 

more  fyllables  ;  fyllables,  of  one  or  more  letters. 

13  So 


2  INTRODUCTION  TO 

So  that  letters,   fyllables,  words,  and  fenten- 
ces,   make  up  the  whole  fubjeft  of  grammar. 


LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  the  firft  principal,  or  leaft  part, 
of  a  word. 

An  articulate  found  is  the  found  of  the  human 
voice,  formed  by  the  organs  of  fpeech. 

A  vowel  is  a  fimple  articulate  found,  formed 
by  the  impulfe  of  the  voice,  and  by  the  opening 
only  of  the  mouth  in  a  particular  manner. 

A  confonant  cannot  be  perfectly  founded  by 
itfelf ;  but  joined  with  a  vowel  forms  a  compound 
articulate  found,  by  a  particular  motion  or  contacl; 
of  parts  of  the  mouth. 

A  diphthong,  or  compound  vowel,  is  the  uni 
on  of  two  or  more  vowels  pronounced  by  a  Tingle 
impulfe  of  the  voice. 

In  Engli'fti  there  are  twenty-fix  letters  : 

A,  a;  B,  b;  C,  c;  D,  d;  E,  e;  F,  f;  G,  g; 
H,  h;  I,  i;  J,  j  •,  K,  k;  L,  1;  M,  m;  N,  n; 
O,  o;T>  P5  Q!»  qi  R>  H  S,  f;  T,  t;  U,  u-, 
V,  v,  W,  w;  X,  x;  Y,  y;  Z,  z. 

J'j,  and^«y,  are  confonants  ;  the  former  hav 
ing  the  found  of  the  foft  g,  and  the  latter  that  of 
a  coarfer  /;  -  they  are  therefore  entirely  different 
from  the  vowels  rand  */,  and  diftinft  letters  of 
themfelves;  they  ought  alfo  to  be  diftinguifhed 
from  them,  each  by  a  peculiar  name  ;  the  former 
may  be  calledyj,  and  the  latter  vet.  The 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  3 

The  names  then  of  the  twenty-fix  letters  will 
be  as  follows:  a,  bee,-  cee,.dee,  e,  ef,  gee,  aitch 
/,  ja,  ka,  e!,  em,  en,,o,  pee,,  cue,  ar,  eft,  tee,  u> 
•vee,  double  it,  .en,  ex,  y,  9tid< 

Six  of  the  letters  are  vowels,  and  may  be 
founded  by  themfelves  ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  it,  y. 

E  is  generally- filent- at  the  end  of  a  word  ;  but 
it  has  its  eirecl  in  lengthening  the  preceding  vow 
el,  as  bid,  bids  : . -and  .  fometimes  like  wife  in  the 
middle  of  a  word;  as,;,  ungrateful  retirement. 
Sometimes  it  has  no  other  .effect,  than  that  ot 
foftening  a  preceding  g  ;  as,  lodge,  judge,  judg 
ment ;  Svs  which  purpofe  it  is  quite  neceflary 
in  thefe  and  the  like  words. 

yis  in  found  wholly  the  fame  with  /;  and  is 
written  inftead  of:  it  at  the  end  of  words  -,  or  be 
fore  /,  as  flying,  denying :  it  is  retained  HkewiftJ- 
in  fome  words  derived  from  the  Greek  ;  and  it 
is  always  a  vowel  *[ij. 

W  is  either  a  vowel  or  a  diphthong  :  its  pro 
per  found  is  the  fame  as  the  Italian  */,  the  French 
ou>  or  the  Englifh  oo  :  after'  o  it  is  fometimes  not 
founded,  nt  all- 3,  fometimes  like  a  fmgle  //. 

The 

[ij  The  fame  found  which  we  exprefs  by  the  initially,  our 
Sixon  anceftors  in  many  inftances  expreiled  by  the  vowel  e;  as 
cuiver,  your:  and  by  the  vowel  /';  as  i-iv,  y:~w  \  long,  young.  Iu 
the  word  ysw,  the  initial  y  has  preciftly  the  fanv;  found  with  /  in 
the  words  vitiv,  Hnu,  adieu :  the  i  is  acknowledged  to  be  a  vowel 
hi  thcie  latter  ;  ho\v  then  can  the  y  which  has  the  very  fame  found, 
pofiibly  be  a  conlbnant  in  the  former?  Its  initial  found  is  gene 
rally  like  that  of  i  in  fairs,  or  e:  nearly,  it  is  formed  by  the  open 
ing  of  the  mouth,  without  any  motion  or  contact  of  che  parts; 
in  a  word,  it  has  every  property  of  LI  vowel,  and  not  one  of  a  cou- 


4  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  reft  of  the  letters  are  confonants  ;  which 
cannot  be  founded  alone  :  fome  not  at  all,  and 
thefe  are  called  Mutes  ;  b,  c,  d,  g,  k,  />,  q,  t: 
others  very  imperfectly,  making  a  kind  of  ob- 
fcure  found,  and  thefe  are  called  Semi-vowels,  or 
Half-vowels,  /,  m,  «,  ry  fy  s;  the  rirlt  four  of  which 
are  alfo  diftinguiflied  by  the  name  of  Liquids. 

The  mutes  and  the  femi-vowels  are  diftinguifti- 
ed  by  their  names  in  the  alphabet;  thofe  of  the 
former  all  beginning  with  a  confonant,  fae,  cee, 
&c.  thofe  of  the  latter  all  beginning  with  a  vowel, 
</,  el,  &c. 

X  is  a  double  confonant,  compounded  of  c,  or 
k)  and  s. 

Z  feems  not  to  be  a  double  confonant  in  Eng- 
Jim,  as  it  is  commonly  fuppofed ;  it  has  the  fame 
relation  to  s9  as  v  has  toj]  being  a  thicker  and 
coarfer  expreffiori  of  it. 

H  is  only  an  afpiration  or  breathing  ;  and  fome- 
tirnes  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  not  founded 
at  all ;  as,  an  hour,  an  boneft  man. 

C  is  pronounced  like  £,  before  a,  0,  it;  and 
foft,  like  s,  before  e,  i,  y  :  in  like  manner  g  is 
pronounced  always  hard  before  tf,  o}  u ,-  fome- 
times  hard  and  fometimes  foft  before  /,  and  y> 
and  for  the  mod  part  foft  before  e. 

The  Englifh  alphabet,  like  mod  others,  is  both 
deficient  and  redundant ;  in  fome  cafes  the  fame 
letters  exprefTrng  different  founds,  and  different 
letters  expreiling  the  fame  founds. 

SYLLABLES. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  5 

SYLLABLES. 

A   Syllable  is  a   found  either  fimple  or  com 
pounded,   pronounced  by  a  fmgle  impulfe 
of  the  voice,  and   coriilituting  a   word  or  part  of 
a  word. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  reading  by  naming  the 
letters  fmgly,  and  rightly  dividing  words  into 
their  fyllables.  Or,  in  writing,  it  is  the  expreding 
of  a  word  by  its  proper  letters. 

In  fpelling,  a  fy liable  in  the  beginning  or  mid 
dle  of  a  word  ends  in  a  vowel,  unlefs  it  be  fol 
lowed  by  x,  or  by  two  or  more  confonants  j  thele 
are  for  the  mod  part  to  be  feparated  ;  and  at 
leaft  one  of  them  always  belongs  to  the  preceding 
fyllable,  when  the  vowel  of  that  fyllable  is  pro 
nounced  fhort.  Particles,  in  compofition,  though 
followed  by  a  vowel,  generally  remain  undivided, 
in  fpelling.  A  mute  generally  unites  with  a 
liquid  following ;  and  a  liquid  or  a  mute,  gene 
rally  feparates  from  a  mute  following  :  le  and  re 
are  never  feparated  from  a  preceding  mute,.  Ex- 
am  pies:  ma-ni-feft)  ?x-e-crable>  wi-e-quali  rnij^np-ply^ 
dif-tin-g uijh)  cor-re-fpen-.tiing. 

But  the  befl  and  eaiieft  rule,  for  dividing  the 
fyllables  in  fpelling,  is  to  divide  them  as  they 
are  naturally  divided  in  a  right  jpronounciation  j 
without  regard  to  the  derivation  of  words,  or 
the  pofTible  combination  of  confonants  at  the 
beginnig  of.  a  fy  liable. 

B   2  WORDS. 


6  INTRODUCTION  TO 

WORDS. 

WORDS    are    articulate    founds,  ufed   by 
common   confent,  as   figns  of  ideas  or 
notions. 

There  are  in  Engli(h,  nine  forts  of  words,  or, 
as  they  are  commonly  called,  Parts  of  Speech. 

1.  The    ARTICLE;   prefixed    to    fubilantives, 
when  they  are  common  names  of  things,  to  point 
them  out,  and   to  mew,  how  far  their  fignifica- 
tion  extends. 

2.  The  SUBSTANTIVE,   or  NOUN  ;  being  the 
name   of  any  thing   conceived   to   fubfift,  or  of 
which  we  have  any  notion. 

3.  The  PRONOUN-,  ftanding  inftead  of  the  noun. 

4.  The  ADJECTIVE  ;  added  to  the  noun  to  ex 
prefs  the  quality  of  it. 

5.  The  VERB  or  Word,  by  way  of  eminence  j 
ilgnifying  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  fuffer. 

6.  The  ADVERB  j  added  to  verbs,  and  alfo  to 
adjectives  and    other    adverbs,  to    exprefs    fome 
circumftance  belonging  to  them. 

7.  The  PREPOSITION  j  put  before  nouns  and 
pronouns    chiefly,  to  connect   them    with   other 
words,  and  to  (hew  their  relation  to  thofe  words. 

8.  The  CONJUNCTION  5  connecting  fentences 
together. 

9.  The  INTERJECTION  ;  thrown  in  to   exprefs 
the  affection  of  the  fpeaker,   though  unneceflary 
with  refpeft  to  the  conftru&ion  of  the  fentence. 

EXAMPLE. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  7 

EXAMPLE, 
I  21         7  2:         5     I  2-  4 

The  power  of   fpeech   is   a   faculty   peculiar 
728        5  5  7373 

to    man,    and    was    beftowed    on    him    by  his 

4  271  486 

beneficent    Creator    for   the    greateft   and   moft 
4  x         8       9.         6         6       5     3 

excellent    ufes;..  but    alas  f    how    often   do  we 

537^47  2 

pervert  it   to  the  word  of  purpofes  ? 

In  the  foregoing  fentence,  the  wards  the,  a> 
are  articles  -,.  power,  fpeech,  faculty,  man,  crea 
tor ,  ufcs,  purpofes,  are  fubftantives ;  kimy  his> 
we,  *V,  are  pronouns  ^.peculiar,  beneficent,  great" 
eft,  excellent,  -worft,  are  adjeclives ;  is,  was,  be- 
Jlowed,  do,  pervert  $  are  verbs  >  moft^  how,  often, 
are  adverks  ; .  of,  to,  on,  by,  for,  are  prepofitionsj 
and,  but,  are  conjunctions  ;  .  and  alasy  is  an  inter 
jection. 

The.  fubftantives,  power,  fpeetb,  faculty,  and  the 
reft,  are  general  or  common  names  of  things ; 
whereof  there  are  many  forts  belonging  to  the 
fame  kind,  or  many  individuals  belonging  to  the 
fame  fort ;.  as  there  are  many  forts  of  power, 
many  forts  of  fpeech,  many  farts  of  faculty,,  many 
individuals  of;  that  fort  of  animal  called  man  ;.  and 
fo  on.  Thefe  general  or  common  names  are  here 
applied  in  a  more  or  lefs  extenfive  fignification, 

according 


5  INTRODUCTION  TO 

according  as  they  arc  ufed  without  either,  or  with 
the  one,  or  with  the  other  :  of  the  two  articles 
a  and  the.  The  worfafpeech,  man,  being  accom 
panied  with  no  article,  are  taken  in  their  largeft 
extent,  and  fignify  all  of  the  kind  or  fort ;  all  forts 
of  fpeech,  and  all  men.  The  wordfacu/ty,  with 
the  article  a  before  it,  is  ufed  in  a  more  confined 
fjgnification,  for  fome  one  out  of  many  of  that 
kind  :  for  it  is  here  implied,  that  there  are  other 
faculties  peculiar  to  man,  befides  fpeech.  The 
words psiuer,.  creator,  ufes,  purpofes,  with  the  article 
the  before  them,  (for  his  creator  is  the  fame,  as 
the  creator  of  him,}  are  ufed  in  the  moil  confined 
fignification,  for  the  things  here  mentioned  and 
;and  afcertained  ;  the  power  is  not  any  one  inde 
terminate  power  out  of  many  forts,  but  that  par 
ticular  fort  of  power  here  fpecified  ;  namely,  the 
power  of  fpeech  :  tkt  creator  is  the  one  great  cre 
ator  of  man  and  of  all  things  •,  the  ufes  and  the 
purpcfes,  are  particular  ufes  and  purpofes  \  the  for 
mer  are  explained  to  be  thofe  in  particular,  that 
are  the  greateil  and  moil  excellent;  fuch,  for  in- 
ftance,  as  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  common  be 
nefit  of  mankind  ;  the  latter  to  be  the  worttj  as 
lying,  flandering,  blafpheming,  and  the  like. 

The  pronouns  him,  his,  iue,  it,  ftand  inflead 
of  fome  of  the  nouns,  or  fubftantives  going  before 
them;  as,  him  fupplies  the  place  of  man\  his,  of 
man's  ;  iue,  of  men,  (implied  in  the  general  name 
of  man,  including  all  men,  of  which  number  is 

the 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  9 

the  fpeaker-,)  it  of  -the  pciuer,  before  mentioned, 
If,  inftead  of  thefe  pronouns,  .the  nouns  for  which 
they  ftand  had  be.en.  ufed,.  the  fen-fe.  would  have 
been  the  fame  but  the  frequent  repetition  of  the 
fame  words  would  have  been  difagreeable  and  te 
dious  ;  as,  the  power  of  fpeeclr,  peculiar  to  man, 
bellowed  on  man,  by  man's  creator,  &c. 

The  adjectives  peculiar,  beneficent,  greattfli  ex- 
celient,  wer/t,  are  added  to  their  feveral  fubftan-. 
lives,  to  denote  the  characler  and  quality  of  each. 

The  verbs  is,  was,  beflowed,  do,  pervert,  fig- 
nlfy  feverally,  being,  fufFering  and  doing.  By 
the  firri  it  is  implied,  that  there  is  fuch  a  thing 
as  the  power  of  fpeech,  and  it  is  affirmed  to  be 
of  fuch  a  kind  ;  namely,  a  faculty  peculiar  to  man: 
by  the  fecond,  it  .is  faid  to  have  been  adled  upon, 
or  to  have  fuffered,  ox  to  have  had  fomething  done 
to  it;  namely,  to  have  been  bellowed  on.  man;  by 
the  laft,  we  are  faid  to  a£l  upon  itr  or  to  do  fome 
thing  to  it ;  namely,  to  pervert  it. 

The  adverbs  moft,  often,  are  added  to  the 
adjective  excellent,  and  to  the  verb  pervert,  to 
ihew  the  circumflancfc-  belonging  to  them  ; 
namely,  that  of  the  higheil  degree  to  the  for 
mer,  and  that  of  frequency  to  the  latter,  con 
cerning  the  degree  of  which  frequency,  alfo  a 
queftion  is  made,  by  the  adverb  how  added  to 
the  adverb  often. 

The  prepofitions  of,  to,  on,  by,  for,  placed 
before  the  fubftanti-ves  and  pronouns,  fpeech, 

man* 


io  INTRODUCTION  TO 

man,  him,  &c.  connect  them  with  other  words, 
fubftantives,  adjectives  and  verbs,  as  power  t. 
peculiar,  be/towed,  &c.  and  fhew  the  relation 
which  they  have  to  thofe  words  >  as  the  relation 
of  fubjecl:,  object,  agent,  end,  for  denoting  the 
end,  by  the  agent,  on  the  object ;  to  and  of-  de 
note  poflefSon,  or  the  belonging  of  one  thing  to 
another. 

The  conjunctions,  and,  and  but,  connect  ths 
three  parts  of  the  fentence  together ;  the  firfl 
more  clofely,  both  with  regard  to  the  fentence 
and  the  fenfe;  the  fecond  connecting  the  parts 
of  the  fentence,  though,  lefs  flrictly,  and  at  the 
fame  time  expreiTrng  an  oppofition  in  the  fenfe. 

The  interjection,  alat-!  exprefles  the  concern 
and  regret  of  the  fpeaker  •,  and  though  thrown 
in  with  propriety,  yet  might  have  been  omitted* 
without, injuring  the  conitruftion  of  the  fen  ten  oe* 
or  deftroying  the  fenfe. 


AJR  T  I  C  L  E. 

THE'  ARTICLE  is,a  word  prefixed  to  •fubftan 
tives,   to  point  them  out,  and  to  fhew  how 
far  their  fignincation  extends. 

In  Englifli  there  are  but   two   articles,  a,  and 
the  :  a  becomes  an  , before  a  vowel,  y  and  iu  [2] 

exceptedj 

[i]  The  pronunciation  of  y  or  ti>,  as  a  part  of  a  diphthong  at  the 
Kginning  of  a  word,  requires  fuch  an  effort  in  th§  cqni'oimatiQp 
gf  the  parts  of  the  mouth,  as  does  not  eafily  admit  of  the  article 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  n 

cxcepted ;  and  before  a  filent  h  preceding  a 
voweJ. 

A  is  ufed  in  a  vague  fenfe  to  point  out  one 
fingle  thing  of  the  kind,  in  other  refpefts  inde 
terminate  :  /£<?  determines  what  .particular  thing 
is  mearied. 

A  fubftantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it,  is 
taken  in  its  wided  fenfe  :  thus  man  means  all 
mankind  ;  as, 

"  The  proper  ftudy  of  mankind  is  man." 

Pope. 

Where  mankind  and  man  may  change  places, 
without  making  any  alteration  in  the  fenfe.  A  man 
means  fome  one  or  other  of  that  kind,  indefi 
nitely  5  tke  man  means,  definitively,  that  par 
ticular  man  who  is  fpoken  of:  the  former  there 
fore  is  called  the  Indefinite,  the  latter  the  Defi 
nite  article  [3.3  .Example: 

an  before  them.  In  other  cafes  the  article  an  in  a  manner  coalefccs 
with  the  vowel  which  it  precedes ;  in  this,  the  effort  of  pronunci 
ation  feparates  the  article,  and  prevents  the  difagreeahle  eonfe- 
quence  of  a  fenfihle  hiatus. 

[3]  "  And  I  perfe.cuted  this  way  unto  tfje  death."  Acls  xxii.  4. 
The  apoftle  does  not  mean  any  particular  lort  of  death,  but  death 
in  general:  the  definite  article  therefore  is  improperly  ufed.  U 
ought  to  be  unto  death,  without  any  article,  agreeably  to  the  ori 
ginal.  See  allo  2  Chron.  xxxii.  24. 

•*  When  He,  the  Spirit  of  truth  is  come,  lie  will  guide  you  into 
all  truth ,"  John  xvi.  13.  That  is,  according  to  this  tranflation, 
into  all  truth  whatfoever,  into  truth  of  all  kinds:  very- different 
from  the  meaning  of  the  Evangelift,  and  from  the  original,  into 
all  truth ;  that  is,  into  all  evangelical  truth, 

"  Truly,  this  was  fir-Son  of  God,"  Mat.  xxvii.  54.  and  Mark 
xv.  79.  This  tranflation  fuppofes  that  the  Roman  centurion  had 
a  proper  and  adequate  notion  of  the  character  of  Jefus,  as  the  Son 
of  God  in  a  peculiar  and  incommunicable  fenfe :  Whereas,  it  is 

probable 


12  -INTRODUCTION  TO 

Example  :  "  man  was  made  for  fociety,  and 
ought  to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men;  but 
a  '-man  will  naturally  entertain  a  more  particular 
kindnefs  for  the  men,  with  whom  he  has  the 
moft  frequent  interccurfe  ;  and  enter  into  a  ft  ill 
clofer  union  with  tie  man,  whofe  temper  and 
difpofition  fuit  beft  with  his  own." 

-  It  is  of  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  de 
termine  or  limit  the  thing  fpoken  of :  a  deter 
mines  it  to  be  o»e  fmgle  thing  of  the  kind, 

leaving 

probable  both  from  the  circumftances  of  the  hiftory,  and  from 
the  expreiFion  of  the  original,  (a  Son  of  God,  -or  -of  a  God,  not 
ile  Son)  that  he  onty  Tneaned  to  acknowledge  him  to  be  an  extra 
ordinary  perlon,  and  more  than  a  mere  m.in;  according;  to  his 
-o\vn  notion  of  Sons  of  Gods,  in  {he  Paeln  theology  This -is  alfo 
rnure  agreeable  to  St.  Luke':;  account  ui  the  fame  confciHon-of  the 
"centurion.  Certainly  this  "was  a  righteous  man;"  riot  the  Juit 
-One.  The  fame  may, be  oulerved  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  words, 
jDan..  iii.  aj. — *'  And  the  form  of  the  fourth  is  like  ile  fon  of 
"God;"  it  ought  to  be  cxpreffed  by  tiie  indefinite  article,  like  a 
Son  of  God,  as  Thcodotian  very  properly  renders  it :  that  is,  like 
an  angel;  according  to  Nebuchadnezzar's  own  account  of  it  in 
the  a8th  verfe:  "  131cfied  be  God,  who  hath  fent  his  aagd,  and 
delivered  his  fervaiits.''  See  alfo  .Luke  xix.  9. 

44   Who  breaks  a  butterfly  upon  a  whe:!?"  Porn, 

It  ought  to  be,  tie  wheel ;  ufed  aa  an  initrument  for  the  particular 
purpofe  o£  torturing  criminals:  as  Shakelpear, 

"  Let  them  pull  all  about  mine  ears;  prefent  me 
Death  on  the  wheel,  or  at  wild  h'ories  heels  " 
"  God  Almighty  hath  given  rcalon  to  a  man  to  be  a  light  unto 
him."     Hobbes,  Elements  of  Law,  Part  I.  chap,  v.  iz.    Itfhould 
rather  be,  to  mnn  in  general. 

Thefe  remarks  may  fervc  to  fhew  the  great  importance  of  the 
proper  ufe  of  the  article,  the  near  affinity  there  is  between  the 
Greek  article  and  the  Englifh  definite  article,  and  the  excellence 
•'of  the  Englifh  language  in  this  refpe&,  which  by  means  of  its  two 
articles  does  moft  precifeiy  determine  the  extent  of  fignification  of 
common  names ;  whereas  the  Greek  has  only  one  article,  and  it 
has  puzzled  all  the  grammarians  to  reduce  die  ufc  of  that,  to  anjr 
clear  and  certain  rules. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  13 

leaving  it  ftill  uncertain  which  •,  the  determines 
which  it  is,  or,  of  many,  which  they  are.  The 
fit  ft  therefore  can  only  be  joined  to  fubftantives 
in  the  fingular  number  [4];  the  laft  may  alfo  be 
joined  to  plurals. 

There  is  a  remarkable  exception  to  this  rule,  in 
the  ufe  of  the  adjeclives/^c/  and  many,  (the  latter 
chiefly  with  the  word  great  before  it,)  which,  though 
joined  with  plural  fubftantivesj  yet  admit  of  the  fin 
gular  article  as  as  a  few  men,  a  great  many  men: 
"  Told  of  a  many  thoufand  warlike  French;"— 
"  A  care-craz'd  mother  of  a  many  children" 

Shakefpear. 

The  reafon  of  it  is  manifeft  from  the  effe£t, 
which  the  article  has  in  thefe  phrafesj  it  means 
a  fmall  or  great  number  collectively  taken,  and 
therefore  gives  the  idea  of  a  whole,  that  is,  of 
unity.  ["5]  Thus  likewife  a  hundred,,  a  thoufand, 
C  is 

[4]  A  good  character  fhouid  not  he  re  fled  in  as  an  end,  but 
employed  as  a  means  tef  doing  ftill  further  good."  After.  Serm. 
II.  3.  Ought  it  not  to  be  a  mean?  "  I  have  read  an  author  of 
this  taue,  that  compares  a  ragged  coin  to  a  tattered  cohurs." — 
Addifon,  Dial.  I.  on  meda's. 

[5  j  Thus  the  word  many  is  t:.ken  collectively  as  a  fubflantive, 
"   O  thou  fond  many!  with  what  loud  applaufe 
Did'ft  thou  beat  Heuv'n  with  bleffing  Boiingbroke, 
[Before  hs  was  what  thou  would'il  have  him  be?" 

Shakefpeare,  ^  Hen.  IV. 

But  it  will  be  hard  to  reconcile  to  any  grammatical  propriety  the 
following  phrafe:  Many  one  there  be,  that  fay  of  my  foul.  There 
is  no  help  for  him.  in  his  God.'*  Pfal.  iii.  2. 

*'   HO"JJ  many  a  mtjfj?:  would  he  fend?" 

Swift,  verfes  on  his  own  death. 

**  He  would  fend  many  a  mcjfige"  is  right :  bat  the  qucftion  boiu 
feems  to  deftroy  the  unity,  or  collective  nature  of  the  idea  ;  and 
therefore  it  ought  to  have  been  expreffed,  if  the  meafure  would 
have  allowed  of  it,  without  the  article*  in  the  plural  number, 
"  bciv  iriany  rne^li^ft,*' 


is  one  whole  number,  an  aggregate  of 
£oHs6lively  taken  ;  and  therefore  (liH  retains  tlrr 
article  a,  though  joined  as  an  adjedtive  to  a  plu 
ral  fubftantive  ;  as,  a  hundred  years.  [6] 

"  3ior  harbor  at  a  thoitfand  doors  they  knock'd-.j.. 

Not  one  of  all  //>£  tkoufand*  but  vvasJock'd." 

Dryden; 

The  definitive  article /&  is  feisset-ikwes  applied. 
to  adverbs  in  .the  Gomgurative.and'  fa&erlative  de 
gree  ;  and  its  effe£B  -is  ft)  iivark  die  cfegres  cte 
more  ftrongly,.  and  to^  defiirs  it  tiis-  more  pre- 
cifely  :  as,  The  mere  I  examine  it,,  &  5t- A'.^  5 
like  it.  I  like  this  the  leaf  of  ar.w^'r 


AS  u  B  s  T  A  N  T  i  v  E,  or  Noutiy.  is  the  •#/&&  o5 
a  thing  v  of  whatever  we  conceive -in  »rr^ 
way  to  fubjljt)  or  of  which  we  have  ^fty  notion. 

Subftantives  are  of  two  forts,  proper  and' 
common  names.  Proper  names  are  the  name^ 
appropriated  to  individuals  ;  as  the  names  of- 

pcrfons- 

[6]  «*  Tricre  xtcre  flain  of  them  upon  a  three  thoufanH  men  :" 
that  is,  to  the  number  <*f  three  thoufatid.  i  Mac.  iv.  15.  {t  Abont' 
an  eight  days;''' that  is,  a  fpace  of  ti«;ht  days.  Luke  ix.  28. 
But  the  expreJIon  is  obfolete,  or  at  kail  vulgar;  and  we  may- 
add  likewfe,  inxjti^per ;  for  neither  cf  tuefe  numbers  has  beer!- 
reduced  by  life  arttl  convenience  into  cfi'e  colle&ive  and  compart 
idea,  libe  a  limdrtd  an'd  a  tboufand;  each  of  which,  like  a  doxex  ur* 
a  fearc,  we  are  accuftomed  equally  to  <rOnfider  on  ccrtum-oC'C-»fion&' 
as  a  fimple  unity. 


ESTGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

and  places,-  fuch  as  George, 
Com  men  names  (land  for  kinds,  containing  many 
forts  :  or  for  forts,  containing  many  individual? 
•under  them  ;  as,  Animal >  Man.  And  thefe  com- 
vnon  names,  whether  of  kinds  or  forts,  are  ap 
plied  to  exprefs  individuals,  by  the  help  of  arti 
cles  added  to  them,  as  hath  been  already  fliewn  j 
and  by  the  help-  of  defiic-it'lre.  .pronouns,  as  we 
£hali  fee  hereafter. 

Proper  names- being  the  names  ef  individuals} 
and  therefore  of  things  already-  as  determinate  as 
they  can  be  made,-  a4m!t  not  of  articles,  or  or 
"plurality  of  number  ;  unlefs  by  a  figure,  or  by 
.accident ;  as,  when  great  conquerors,  are  caller. 
Alexander S)  and  fome  great  conqueror,  an  Alex 
ander,  -or  the  Alexander  of  his  age  ;  Avhen  a  cor.- 
.rnon  name  is  underftcodj  as  tie  Thames,  that  i; :•:. 
tie  river  Thames  ;.  //^George,  that  is  the  fign  o.v 
St.  George;  or  when  it  happens,  that  there  arc 
inany  perions  of  the  fame  name,  as  tie  two  Scipios, 

Whatever  is  fppkers  of,  is .reprefented  as  one, 
or.  more,  in- •number  j;  thefe  t\vo  manners  of  rc- 
prefentation  in  refpecl  of  number^  are  called  the 
Singular,  and  the  plural  number. 

In  Engliih,  the  fubdantive  fmgular  is  made  plu 
ral,  for  the  mod  part,  by  adding  to  it  s;  or  csy 
where  it  is  neceilary  for  die  pronunciation:  as 
I'iug)  kings;  fix,  foxes;  leaf,  haves;  in  which  Iafr3 
and  many  others,  f  is  alfo  changed  into  v,  for 
the  (like  of  an  ea&er  proimociaiioji  and  more 
agreeable 


i6  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Some  few  plurals  end  in  en  :  as  own,  children, 
brethren,  and  men,  women,  by  changing  the  a  of 
the  fingular  into  e.  [7]  This  form  we  have  re 
tained  from  the  Teutonic  ;  as  likev/ife  the  intro 
duction  of  the  e  in  the  former  fyllable  of  two  of 
the  lad  inftances ;  •wsomen,  (for  fo  we  pronounce 
it,)  brethren,  from  woman,  brother :  [8]  fomething 
like  which,  may  be  noted  in  fome  other  forms  of 
plurals  •,  as  moufe,  mice ;  loufe,  lice ;  tooth,  teeth ; 
foot,  fed  ;  goofe,  geefe.  [9] 

The  words  fteep,  dter,  are  the  fame  in  both 
numbers. 

Some  nouns  from  the  nature  of  the  things 
which  they  exprefs,  are  ufed  only  in  the  fmgular 
others  only  in  the  plural  form  :  as  'wheat,  pitch} 
gold,  Jlsth,  pride,  &c.  and  bellows,  fajfars,  lungs  $ 
bowels,  &c. 

The  Englifh  language,  to  exprefs  different  con 
nections  and  relations  of  one  thing  to  another,  ufes 
for  the  mod  part  prepofitions.  The  Greek  and 
Latin  among  the  antients,  and  fome  too  amon 
modern  languages,  as  the  German,  vary  the  ter 
mination  or  ending  of  the  fub'aantive,  to  anfwer 
the  fame  purpofe.  Thefe  different  endings,  are 

in 


r?]  And  antbntly,  e*;enyfc:,en  lo::fcn  bn£n;  fo  likewife  articntly 
j',ivi>'i,  c<jii-en^  now  always  pronounced  and  v/ritteny^t'r.v,  k'i;:e. 

[8]  In  the  Gtrt-nan,  the  vowels  u,  c.  «,  f)f  rnonofyllal  le  nouns, 
are  generally  in  the  plural  changed  into  diphthongs  with  an  c:  ;.s' 
li.-r  /':.-/;J,  the  hujid  die  L:n  .-<:•/ dcr  b;;t,  the  hat;  die  Luis:  der 
i^Pll\  the  burton  (or  knop)  die  iaopjj'c,  c<c. 

\jji'\  Thefe  are  directly  from  the  Saxon  ;  KUS,  n\:-;  lus,  lys ;  itlb, 
icib ;  fvtjfst;  gcs}^--s. 


AK.  *7 

in  thofe  languages  called  cafes.  And  the  Engliflv 
eeing  derivcd-from  the  fame  origin  as  the  German, 
that  is,  from  the  Teutonic,  fO  is  not  wholly  with 
out  them.  For  inftance,  the  rdation  of  poffeffion- 
-or  belonging,  is  often,  cxprefled  by  a  cafe,  or  i- 
•different  ending  of  the  fabitantive.  This  cafe  an- 
fwers  to  the  genitive  Cafe  in  Latin,  and  may  ftili 
fee  fo  called  ;.  though  perhaps  more  properly  tlr 
pofleffive  cafe  :  thus,  "'God's  grace  5"  which  ritej 
alfobe  exprefiedby  the  prepciirkm,.  .as  "the  grace. 
vfGod?  It-  was  fefffcftoty  writt-a-a,  "  G^//J  grace  ;M 
we  now  always  fhortes  k  \vl*Ji  an  Apoitrophe  .; 
often  very  improperly,  wiren  vre  are  obliged  to 
pronunce  it  fully  •>•  as-,  "  Thomas's  book,"  that  is? 
**S^  lomasts  -"books"  not  "  Thomas  hitlyzok"'  as  it 
ts  commonly  fuppofed  [2}  . 

When  the  thing,  to  -\vhTek-  another  "is  laid  tc 

belong,,  ,k  exprefledby  a  circumlocution,  or  by 

many  terms,  tlie  fign  of  the  ppfleititc  cafe  is  com-'- 

C-  a-  monly 

[t-]'  "  Ivin^ua  An^orury^  hodierna  aviv.t  Savonicrr  form  am  iv 
Y>h3rii(^uc  orationis  partibus  ctiamnum  rets*ct.  Nam  quoad  ])ur- 
ticuhs  cafuales»  quorundanr  'cafuum  WmxtftatwneSj  conjugarioncn 
verborstii,  verbum  fsbftantivuM,  fermam  pafiivai  vo.ts,  prono- 
mina,  participia,  conjr.iidioiw-s,  c%  prxpolitioncs  ontnt;?  ;  dcniqnc*. 
•guoad  idiomaca,  phrafiiiiw^ue  ntaxiniam  partem,  ctiam  mmc  Sa:;- 
tonicus  ell  Angloram  fermc*.  Hickcs,  'I'hclaur,  1-ing.  Sentcnt. 
Praef.  p.  vi.  To  vdkith  may  be  added  the  degivcs  of  comnarifon, 

Saxon. 
oi  the 
was 

perfect  with  the  Lord."     I  Kings,  xv.  14.     "  To  fee  whether 
Mordecai  his  matters  would  Hand."     Efther,  iii.  4. 
«'  Where  is  this  mankind  now  ?  who  lives  to  age 
Fit  to  be  made  Methufalem  bis  pagc?"  Donn?., 

'->  By  youRgTckm-achys-  his  blooming  years,"  Popc'£Oclyn<->% 

it  7x«v 


rae.  p.  v.         o  vt     may    e  ae     te     egivcs  o   comnaro 
the  form  of  which  is  tke  very  fame  in  the  Englifh  as  in  the.  Saxo 
[a]  "  Chrijl  ins  fake,''  in  our  liturgy  is  a  miftake,  either  oi  t 
printers,  or  of  the  compilers.     "  Neverthelcfs,  Afa  hh  heart 


iS  INTRODUCTION  TO 

monly  added  to  the  laft  term  ;  as,  "The  king  of 
Great  Britain  s  foldiers."  When  it  is  a  noun  end 
ing  in  Sj  the  fign  of  the  pofieflive  cafe,  is  fome- 
times  not  added  ;  as,  "  for  righteoufneff  fake;  [3] 
nor  ever  to  the  plural  number  ending  in  s ;  as, 
"  on  eagles,  wings."  [4]  Both  the  fign  and  the 
prepofition  feem  fometimcs  to  be  ufed  j  "  a  foldier 
of  the  king's  ;"  but  here  are  really  two  pofle  (lives  ; 
for  it  means,  "  one  s/'the  foldiers  gf  the  king." 

The  Englifh  in  its  fubftantives  has  but  two 
different  terminations  for  cafes  j  that  of  the  no 
minative,  which  (imply  expreffes  the  name  of  the 
thing,  and  that  of  the  pofleflive  cafe. 

Things 

"  My  paper  Is  the  U/yJ/l-s  Us  bow,  in  which  every  man  of  wit  or 
learning  ir.ay  try  his  itrtngth."  Addifon,  Guardian,  No  98. 
This  is  no  flip  of  Mr.  Addifon 's  pen  ;  he  gives  us  liis  opinion 
upon  thi.s  point  very  explicitly  in  another  place.  "  The  fame 
Tingle  l.tter  (j)  on  many  occasions,  does  the  office  cf  the  whole 
vord,  and  represents  the  Us  and  her  of  our  forefathers."  Addi 
fon,  Spedl.  No  135.  The  latter  inftancc  m-ight  have  fhev.'n  him, 
how  groundlcfs  this  notion  is,  for  it  is  {H<t  eafy  to  conceive,  ho\v 
the  letter  s  added  to  a  feminine  noun,  fnould  reprefent  the  word 
tar,  any  more  than  it  fhouM  ihe  word  their,,  added  to  a  plural 
noun;  us,  the  cbildrtn*s  Lread  ;  hut  the-  ciiredl  derivation  of  this 
cafe,  from  the  Saxon  genitive  cafe,  isiuHicicni  of  itfclf  to  decide 
this  matter. 

[3]  In  poetry,  the  fign  of  the  pofLfnve  cafe  is  frequently 
omitted,  after  proper  names  ending  in  j,  or  y. ;  as,  "  The  wrath 
of  Peltus*  fon."  1'ope.  This  fcems  not  fo  allowable  in  profe  : 
as,  R^ofes*  n^inifter ;''  Jofh.  i.  I.  "  1' hint  has'  wife,  i  Sam.  iv. 
19.  "  F^ftus  came  into  Felix'  room."  Adlsxxiv.  27. 

[4]  "  It  is  very  prohub'.e,  that  this  convocation  was  called,  to 
clear  fome  doubt  that  King  James  might  have  had,  about  the  law- 
fulnefs  of  the  Hollanders,  tlelr  throwing  off  the  monarchy  of 
Spain,  and  their  withdrawing  for  good  and  all  their  alleg'ance  to 
that  crown.''  Wellwood's  memoirs,  p.  31.  6th  edit.  In  thi:; 
fentence  the  pronominal  adjective  tbtir  is  twice  improperly  added, 
the  pofltfiive  cafe  being  fufiiciently  cxprefied  without  it. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  19 

Things  are  frequently  confidered  with  relation 
to  the  diilin&ion  of  fex  or  gender  j  as  being  male 
or  female,  or  neither  the  one,  nor  the  other. 
Hence  fubftantives  are  of  the  mafculine,  feminine, 
or  neuter,  (that  is,  neither,)  gender,  which  lat 
ter  is  only  the  exclufion  of  all  confideration  of 
gender. 

The  Englifli  language,  with  fingular  propriety, 
following  nature  alone,  applies  the  diftinclion  of 
mafculine  and  feminine,  only  to  the  names  of 
animals  ;  all  the  red  are  neuter,  except  when,  by 
a  poetical  or  rhetorical  fiction,  things  inanimate, 
and  qualities,  are  exhibited  as  perfons,  and  con- 
fequently  become  either  male  or  female.  And 
this  gives  the  Englifh  an  advantage  above  mod 
other  languages  in  the  poetical  and  rhetorical  ftyle, 
for,  when  nouns  naturally  neuter  are  converted 
into  mafculine  and  feminine,  [5]  the  perfonifica- 
tion  is  more  dillindly  and  forcibly  marked. 

Some 


[5]  "  At  his  command  th'  uprooted  Hills  retir'd 
Each  to  bis  place  :  they  heard  his  voice,  and  went 
Obftquious  :   Heaven  bis  wonted  face  renew'd, 
And  with  frefh  flowrcts  lull  and  valley  fmil'd." 

Milton,  P.  L.  B.  vi. 

"  Was  I  deceiv'd  ;  or  did  a  fable  cloud 
Turn  forth  her  filver  lining  on  the  night?'' 

Milton,  Comus. 

"  Of  hw  no  lefs  can  be  acknowledged,  than  that  Itr  feat  is 
the  bofom  of  God;  her  voice  the  harmony  of  the  world.  All 
things  in  heaven  and  earth  do  ber  homage  ;  the  very  Icaft,  as 
feeling  btr  care ;  and  the  greatcft  as  not  exempted  from  her 

power.1* 


20  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Some  few fuhftantives  are  diflinguifhed  in  their 
gender,  by  their  terminations-,  as, .pr'uicey  princcfs  t 
aftor,  aftrefs  ;  Ihfi,  liomfi  ;  hero,  heroine,  &c. 

The  chief  life  of  gender  in  Englifh,  is  in  the 
pronoun  of  the  third  perfon  j  which  muft  agree 
in  tbat  refpedt  'with  the  noun  for  which  it  fiancte. 


P  R  ONO  UN. 

A   PRO  NOUN,  is  a   word   ftandiirg  infttad  *f  & 
xoun,  as  its  fubftantive  or  reprefentative. 
In  the  pronoun  are  to  be  confidered  the  perfon ^ 
number,  , gender,  and  cafe. 

There  are  three  perfons  which  may  be  the  fub^ 
j-e£t  of  any  difcourfej  firft,  the  perfon  who  fpeaks 
may  fpeaJc  of  himfclf  ^  fecondly,  he  may  fpeak  of 

the 

power."  Hooker,  B.'i.  p.  6.'.  '  Go  to  year  natural  rcfe'gior. ; 
lay  before  her,  Mahomet  and  his  difciples,  ari-a)'ed  in  armour  and 
ia  blood — (hew  her  the  cities,  which  he  fet  m  flames,  the  coun 
tries  which  he  ravaged;  when  j&e  has  viewed  him  in  this  fccuc, 
carry  her  to  his  retirements— -fnew  her  the  prophet's  chamber,  his 
concubines  aiid  his  wives;  when  Jbe  is  tired  with  this  profpec~l:r 

tken  fhevv  Ler  the  Blelfed  Jefus .'  See  the  whole  puflagc  iit 

the  conclufion  of  Bp  Sherlock's  9th-  Sermon,  vol.  i,' 

Of  thefe  beautiful  pafiages  we  may  obferve,  that  as  in  the  Eng- 
Jifh  if  you  put  ;'/  and//j  inftead  of  lis,Jbey  her,  you  confound  and. 
deilroy  the  images,  and  reduce,  what  was  before  highly  poetical 
and  rhetorical,  to  mere  profe  and  common  difcourfe  ;  fo  if  you 
render  them  into  another  language,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian 
or  German,  in  which  hill,  heaven,  cloud,  hw,  religion,  are  con* 
flantly  mafculine  or  feminine  or  neuter,  refpe£Hve!y,  you  nialcc. 
the  images  obfcure  and  doubtful,  and  in  proportion,  diminifo 
iheir  beauty. 

Tbis  excellent  remark  is  Mr,.  H?.rrL>'$j. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  21 

the  perfon  to  whom  he  addreiTes  himfdf  5  thirdly, 
he  may'fpeak  of  fome  other  perfon. 

Thcfe  are  called,  refpettively,  the  firft,  fecond, 
and  third  perfons  ;  and  are  exprefled  by  the 
pronouns  /,  thou,  and  he, 

As  the  fpeakers,  the  perfons  fpoken  to,  and 
the  other  perfons  fpoken  of,  may  be  many  ;  fo 
each  of  thefe  perfons  hath  the  plural  number, 
•we,  ye,  they. 

The  perfons  fpeaking  and  fpoken  to,  being  at 
the  fame  time  the  fubjects  of  the  difccurfe,  are 
fuppofed  to  be  prefent  ;  from  which,  and  other 
circumilances,  their  fex  is  commonly  known, 
and  needs  not  be  marked  by  a  diftincticn  of  gen 
der  in  their  pronouns  :  but  the  third  perfon  or 
thing  fpoken  of,  being  abfent,  and  in  many  re- 
fpecls  unknown,  it  is  neceflary  that  it  mould  be 
marked  by  a  diftincticn  of  gender  ;  at  lead  when 
fome  particular  perfon  or  thing  is  fpoken  of, 
which  ought  to  be  more  didinftly  marked  :  ac 
cordingly  the  pronoun  fmgular  of  the  third  per 
fon  hath  three  genders  ;  he,  Jhe,  it. 

Pronouns  have  three  cafes  •,  the  nominative, 
the  genitive,  or  po'fleflive,  like  nouns  ;  and  more 
over  a  cafr,  which  follows  the  verb  active,  or 
the  prepofition,  exprefling  the  object  of  an  action, 
or  of  a  relation.  It  anfwers  to  the  oblique  cafes 
in  Latin  ;  and  may  be  properly  enough  called  the 
objective  cafe. 

PRONOUNS, 


22  INTRODUCTION  TC 

P&ONOUN&I   according  to   their  perfons,. 
•cafes  and  genders. 


'I.  2.  3.  I.  2..  |- 

.Singular.  Piuiak 

I,        Thou,     He.        We,  Yex  O.T  You,  Tliey. 

CASES. 

Poil.       Obj.  Norn.      ^ofil      Obj.. 

FirfrPerforu 
I,,      Mine,     Me..          We,       Oursy      Us.. 

.Second  Perfoa.. 
Thou,  Thine,.  Thee.   Ye  or  You,  Yours,  You.[6  2 

Third  Perfon, 

Meifc.  He,  His,  Him.      "}. 

•Fern-.     She,  Hers,  Her,    j>  -Tiiej-,  Tkeirs,  Them*. 
.    It,  Its,  [7]  It.      J, 


[61  SOSQC  writers  have  :iP;-d  ^  as  the  objtdive  caie  plural  of 
.the  pi-cfci-oun  -of  the  fecoml  jxrrfpn  :   very  i 


"  The,  more  lhame  for  \e:  lioly  inen  I  thou<rlit  jr.'* 

car.  Hen.  VII  L 


<4  But  tyrants  cli'ead  \v,  left  your  juft  decree 

Trai-sfer  the  powV,  and  fct  the  people  free," 

*'  His  wrat.h»  which  one  day  will  deftroy  ye  botli.'" 

Milton,   P.  L.  ii.  734- 

IMiiton  ufcs  the  fame  -manner  njfexprc0ibn  in  a  fey/  other  placet 
of  his  Paradife  Loll,  and  more  Irciiiuntly  in  his  p-rems.  It  ma?/ 
pcrhapf,  be  allowed  in-  the  comic  and  hui}efq.'je  ftylc,  which  oftejj 
finitates  a  vulgar  and  incorrect  pronunciation,  as,  "  By  the  Lord, 
i  kneyv  r*,  as  well  as  he  that  made  ye.*'  Shakefpear,  I  Hen.  IV. 
But.  in  the.ferious  and  iolemn  ftyle  no  authority  is  fufncient  to 
juftify.fo.manifeft  a  fokcifm. 

The  Singular  and  Pi-ural  form  f«ar»  te,l>e  confounded  in  tint 
following  lenience.:    "  Pa-fo/^  away,  thou  inhabituncs  oi  Saphir.4"1 

Micah,  i.  II. 

[7]  The  Neuter  proncun  of  the  third  pei-fon  had  formerly  nu 
ion  i)f  cafes.    InikaJ  :of  die  poffcffive  its  $l>ey-  nfrd  its,  v.'hic.'i 

i* 


EJN*£LISH  GRAMMAR.  23 

The  perfonal  pronouns  have  the  nature  o£ 
fubftantives,  and  as  fuch,  liand  by  thenifelves :• 
The  reft  have  the  nature  of  cvljsclives,  and  as- 
liucb,  are  joined  to  fubftailtives ;  and  may  be 
called  pronominal  atijetSlives. 

27' v>  ^;>  b*r>  our>  .your*  their*  are  ptonomi^ 
rial  adjectives  ;  but  bis,  (tha-S  Is,,  his)  her's,  ottr's? 
yonr's,  theirs,  have  evidently  the  form  of  the 
pofTeilive  cafe  :  And  by  analogy,  wine,  thine,  [3], 
may  be  eileemed  of  the  fame  rank.  All  thefe 
are  ufed,  when  th,e  noun  the^belong  to  is  under- 
itocd  t  The  two  latter  fome*imes  alfo  inilead  of 
•&iyy  thy,  \vhen  the  noun  following  them  begins 
with  a  vowel.  Befidc 

ic  now  appropriated  to  the  mjifculine.     4<  learning  hath  bis  in- 
l^ncy,  when  //  is  but  beginning,  and  almoil  childifh  ;  then  bis 
^uth,  when  it  is  luxuriant  and  juvenile;  then  bis  ftrength  of 
years,  when  if  is  folid  and  reduced^  and  laftly  Us  old  age,  when 
/>waxcth  dry  and  exhauft.''     Bacon,! -May  58.     In  this  example 
his  is  evidently/  ufed  as  the  poireffive  caiV- of  it:  But  vvhat  fhall  tve' 
Tay  to  the  following  where  her  is  applied  in  the  fume  manner,  and 
.fffems  to  make  a  ftrange  confufion  of  gcHder?  «*  He  that  pricketfv 
-."He  heart  maketii  i>to  (hew  her  knowleu'^e."     Ecclus.-xxii.  :^; 
41  Off  have  I  feen  a  timely  parted  ghoft, 
(V5f  afny  lemblance,  meagre,  pale  an>i  bloodlefs, 
'Being  all  defct-nded  to  the  lab'ring  heart, 
-Who)  in  the  confli&  that  it  holds  with  death, 
Attrads  the  fame  for  aidance  'gainft  the  enemy.*' 

Shakefpcar,  a  Ffcri.  V;, 
Tt  oitght  to  be, 

"  V/bicb^  in  the  conflict  that  it  holds," 
'©r,  perhaps  more  poetically, 

"  Wbo,  in  the  conflict  that  be  holda  wit^fl1  dpath.'* 
[8]  So  the  Saxon  Ic  hath  the  poffeffivS  ca.^'  j&ltil1?  'Tbu^  pofTef- 
A ve  TL'm  ;  Het  poffeffive  His :  From  which  our  pcffdfive  cafes  o? 
the*"fame  pronouns  aK;  taken  without  alteration.  To  the  Saxon 
p'offeffive  caics,  hire,  ure,  cower,  hint,  (that  is,  btr's,  our's^  your. , 
Ibeir'i )  we  have  added  the  j,  the  characleriftic  of  the  poflefiiv'T 
cafe  of  nouns.  Or  wVjjwwrV,  arc  diredly  from  the  faxon 
stivers ;  the  poffefGve  ca'fc  of  the  I'ronominal 
:o-zi'er  ;  tliat  is,  our  ycvr'. 


24  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Befide  the  foregoing,  there  are  feveral  ether 
pronominal  adjectives  ;  which,  though  they  may 
fometimes  feem  to  (land  by  themfelves,  yet  have 
always  fome  fubftantive  belonging  to  them,  either 
referred  to,  or  underftood  ;  as,  This,  that,  ether, 
any,  fome,  one,  none.  Thefe  are  called  Definitive, 
becaufe  they  define  and  limit  the  extent  of  the 
common  name,  or  general  term,  to  which  they 
either  refer,  or  are  joined.  The  three  firft  of 
thefe  are  varied,  to  exprefs  number  ;  as,  Thefe, 
thofe,  ethers;  [9]  the  laft  of  which  admits  of 
the  plural  form  only  when  its  fubftantive  is  not 
joined  to  it,  but  referred  to,  or  underftood  ;  none 
of  them  are  varied  to  exprefs  the  gender  or  cafe. 
One  is  fometimes  ufed  in  an  indefinite  fenfe,  (an- 
fwering  to  the  French  on]  -as  in  the  following 
phrafes  ;  "  One  is  apt  to  think  ; — one  fees  ; — one 
fuppofes  :"  Who,  which,  that,  are  called  relatives, 
becaufe  they  more  direclly  refer  to  fome  fubftan 
tive  going  before  ;  which  therefore  is  called  the 
antecedent.  They  nlfo  connect  the  following 
part  of  the  fentence  with  the  foregoing.  Thefe 
belong  to  all  the  three  perfons  ;  whereas  the  reft 
belong  only  to  the  third.  One  of  them  only  is 
varied  to  exprefs  the  three  cafes  •,  Who,  ivhofe,  [i] 

(that 

[9]  "  Diodorus,  whofc  defijrn  was  to  refer  all  occurrence*!  to 
years,  is  of  more  credit  in  a  point  of  Chronology  than  Plutarch, 
or  any  ether  that  write  lives  by  the  lump."  Bcntly,  DifTert,  on 
Themiftocles's  Epiftles,  Sec,t.  vi.  It  ought  to  be  others  or  writes, 

[l]  Wbofe  is  by  fome  authors  made  the  poffcffive  cafe  of  tchicb, 
and  applied  to  things  as  well  as  perfons  ;  I  think  improperly. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  .  $5 

that  is,  who's)  [2  j  whom :  None  of  them  have  diffet- 
ent  endings  for  the  numbers.  Wha,  which)  what, 
are  called  interrogatives,  when  they  are  ufed  in 
afldng  queftions.  The  two  latter  of  them  have 
no  variation  of  number  or  cafe.  Eacby  everyy  £3] 
eithertt  are  called  distributives  ;  becaufe  they  de 
note  the  perfons  or  things  that  make  up  a  number, 
as  taken  Separately  and  fmgly* 

Oiufi  audfelf  in  the  plural  filves,  are  joined 
to  the  pofTeflives,  myy  oury  thy,  your,  his,  her* 
their  3-  as,  my  own  hand,  myfelfy  yourfelves ;  both 
of  them  expreffing  emphafis  or  oppofition,  as, 
*  I  did  it  my  own  Jclfy  that  is,  and  no  one  elfe  5 
the  latter  alfo  forming  the  reciprocal  pronoun,  as, 
'  he  hurt  himfelf"  Himfelfy  themfehesy  feem  to 
be  ufed  in  the  nominative  cafe  by  corruption, 
D  inftead 

"  The  gueftion,   "it-ljofc  folution  I  require, 

Is,  what  the  fex.  of  women  moft  defitc. "  Dr ydcn. 

"  Js  there  any  other  chtfrine,  ivbofc  followers  are  punifhed  ? 

Addifon. 

The  higher  Poetry,  which  loves  to  confider  every  thing  as  hear 
ing  a  pedonal  character,  frequently  applies  the  perfonal  poffellive 
ivbofe  to  inanimate  beings. 

*•'  Of  man's  firft  diibbedience,  and  the  fruit 

Of  that  forhiddtn  tree,  ivhofe  mortal  tafte 

Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  cur  woe."  Milton. 

[a]  So  the  Saxon  bvta  h;uh  the  poiTelfive  cafe  h-was.  Note, 
that  the  Saxons  rightly  placed  the  Afpirate  before  the  iu:  as  we 
now  pronounce  it.  This  will  be  evident  to  any  one  that  fhall 
confider  in  what  manner  he  pronounces  the  words  -what,  ivben ; 
that  is,  hoo-at,  hoo-en. 

[3]  Every  was  formerly  much  ufed  as  a  Pronominal  Adjective, 
{landing  by  itfelf:  as,  «*  He  propofeth  unto  God  their  neceflities, 
and  they  their  own  requefts,  for  reliei  in  every  of  them. "  Hooker, 
v.  39.  "  The  corruptions  and  depredations  to  which  every  of 
thefe  was  fubjecV'  bwift,  Cootefts  and  diffentio|>s.  We  now 
commonly  fay,  every  one* 


aS  ,   INTRODUCTION  TO 

inilead  of  lisfelf,  [4]  tfxir  felves,  as,  '  he  en  me 
himjelfy  they  did  it  themfei'ues /  where  klmfetf^ 
them/elves,  cannot  be  hi  the  objective  cafi.  If 
this  be  fo,  /7f  muft  be,  in  thefe  inftances,  not  a 
pronoun,  but  a  noun.  Thus  Dry  den  ufes  it  : 

"  What. I  (how, 
Thyfelf  may  freely  on  thyfelf  befto'w." 

Ourfe/fj  the  plural  pronominal  adjective  with 
the  fmgular  fubitantive,  is  peculiar  to  the  regal 
ftyle.  " 

Own  is  an  adjective,  or  perhaps  the  participle 
(owen)  of  the  verb  to  owe,  to  pofTefs,  to  be  the 
tight  owner  of  a  thing.  [5] 

All  nouns  whatever  in  grammatical  conftruc- 
tion  are  of  the  third  perfon,  except  when  an 
addrefs  is  made  to  a  perfon,  then  the  noun  (an- 
fwering  to  what  is  called  the  vocative  cafe  in 
Latin)  is  of  the  fecond  perfoii. 


ADJECTIVE. 

AN  ADJECTIVE  is  a  word  added  to  a  fub- 
flantive  to  exprefs  its  quality.  [6]  In 

[4]  His  filf  im&  their  ftlves  were  formerly  in  ufe,  even  in  the 
objective  cafe  after  a  prepofition  :  *'  Every  of  us,  each  for  Us  f>-lj\ 
labored  how  to  recover  him."  Sidney.  »«  That  they  would 
willingly  and  of  their  f elves  endeavor  to  keep  a  perpetual  chaflity.'' 
Stat.  2  and  3  Ed.  VI.  ch.  xxi. 

[5]  ««  The  man  that  oiunetl  this  girdle."     Ads  xxi.  II. 

[6]  Adjectives  are  very  improperly  called  Nouns ;  for  they  are 
not  the  names  of  things.  The  adjectives  good^  ivbite,  are  applied 
to  the  nouns  man,fnoivy  to  exprefs  the  qualities  belonging  fo  thofe 
fubjeds;  but  the  names  of  thofe  qualities  in  the  abftracl,  (that 
is,  confidered  in  themfelves,  and  without  being  attributed  to  any 
fubjedt)  wegoodnefs,  -whiienefs ;  and  thefc  are  nouns  or  fubftantives. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  27 

In  English  the  adjeclive  is  not  varied  on  ac 
count  of  gender,  number  or  cafe.  [7]  The  only 
variation,  which  it  admits  of,  is  that  of  the  de 
grees  of  comparison. 

Qualities  for  the  moft  part  admit  of  more  and 
/<•/},  or  of  different. degrees-j  and  the  words  that 
exprefs  fuch  qualities  have  accordingly  proper 
forms  to  exprefs  different  degrees.  When  a  qua 
lity  is  fimply .exprefled  without  any  relation  to  the 
i'ame  in  a  different  degree,  it  is  called  the  Pofi- 
tive  ;  a&>  wife, .  great .  When  it  is  exprefled  with 
augmentation^  or  with  reference  to  a  lefs  degree 
of  the  fame,  it  is  called  the  Comparative  5  wifer,. 
greater.  When  it  is  exprefled  as  being  in  the 
higheft  degree  of  all, .  it  is. called  the  fupcrlaiive  j 
as,  w-ifeft'y  greaiefi.. 

So  that  the  fimple  word,  or  pofitive,  becomes 
comparative  by  adding  r,  orer;  and  fuperlative  by 
adding  ^y?,  or  */?,  to  the  end  of  it.  And  the  adverbs 
more  or  mofl  placed  before  the  adjective  have  the 
fame  effect ;  as,  wife,  more  wife,  moft  wife.  [8] 

Monofyllables, 

[7]  Some  few  pronominal  adjectives  muft  here  be  exct-pted,  as 
having  the  poffefiive  cafe;  as>  unet  ctbsr,  mother:  '  By  one's  own 
choice/  Sidney. 

'  '1'cach  me. to  feel  another's  \voc.  Pope,  Univ.  Prayer. 

And  the  adjcdlives/cmw  and  latter >  may  be  confidered  as  prono 
minal,  and  rcp?'efcnting  the  nouns,  to  which  they  refer;  if  the 
^•hrafe  in  the  fol. owing  fentence  be  avowed  to  be  juil  :  "  It  was 
happy  for  the  ftate,  that  Fabius  continued  in  command  with  Mi- 
liucius;  \h$  firings  phlegm  was  a  check  upon  the  latter't  vivaci.y.' 
[8]  Double  comparatives  and  fuperlative*  are  improper  : 

"  The  Duke  of  Milan, 
h-is  rwe  Lrawf  daughter  could  controul  thec." 

bbakefpear,  Tempefl. 
"  After 


28  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Monofyllables,  for  the  moft  part  are  compared 
by  er  and  eft,  and  diflyllables  by  mere  and  mojl ; 
as,  mild)  milder,  miideft  ;  frugal,  more  frugal,  mojl 
frugal.  Diflyllables  ending  in  y,  as  happy,  lovely  ; 
and  in  le  after  a  mute,  as  able,  ample  /  or  accent 
ed  on  the  laft  fylJable,  as  difcrete,  polite,  eafily 
admit  of  er  and  eft.  Words  of  more  than  two 
fyllables  hardly  ever  admit  of  thofe  terminations. 

In  fome  few  words  the  Superlative  is  formed 
by  adding  the  Adverb  mojl  to  the  end  of  them  : 
2S,  nether  moft,  ttttennojt,  or  utmojl,  under  moj}^  up- 
permoft,  foremoft. 

In  Englifh,  as  in  moft  languages,  there  are 
fome  words  of  very  common  ufe,  in  which  the 
caprice  of  cuftom  is  apt  to  get  the  better  of  ana 
logy,  that  are  irregular  in  this  refpecl: ;  as,  good 

better, 

' '  After  the  mfiftraitdfi.  fe&  of  our  religion  I  lived  a  Pharifce." 
A&s  xxvi.  5.  So  likewife  adjectives,  that  have  in  themfclves  a 
fuperfative  fignification,  admit  not  properly  the  fuperlative  form 
fuperadded  :  "  Whofoever  oi'  you  will  he  cbiefrft,  fhall  be  fervant 
»;f  ai!.5'  Mark  x  44.  "  One  of  the  firll  and  chicfeft  inftances  of 
prudence.''  Atterbury,  Serm.  IV.  "  While  the  extreme/!  parts 
of  the  earth  were  meditating  a  fubmiifion. "  Ibid.  i.  4. 

*'  But  firfl  and  tbiefefl  with  thee  bring 

Him,  that  yon  ioars  on  golden  wing, 

Guiding  the  fiery-wheeled  throne, 

The  Cherub  contemplation."  Milton,  II  Pcnferofo. 

"  That  on  the  fea's  extreme^  border  flood.*' 

Addifon's  Travel*. 

B-it  Poetry  i?  in  poflVflion  of  thefe  two  improper  fuperlatives,  and 
may  be  indulged  in  the  ufe  of  them. 

The  double  fuperiatives  mojl  Liglcfl  is  a  phrafe  peculiar  to  the  old 
vulgar  tranflation  of  the  Pfohris-;  where  it  acquires  a  fingular  pro 
priety  from  the  fubje<5t  to  which  it  is  applied,  the  Supreme  Being, 
who  is  biglcr  tlan  the 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  29 

better,  left  ;  bad,  ivorfe,  ivoffl  ;  little,  fefi,  [9] 
If  aft ;  much,  or  tnaty,  more,  rnoft ;  and  a  few  others. 
And  in  other  languages,  the  words  irregular  in 
this  refpe£t,  are  thofe  which  exprefs  the  very 
fame  ideas  with  the  foregoing.  - 

««S»C&«B»~ 

V  E  R  B. 

A  VERB  is  a  'word  which  fignifies  to  be,   to 
do,   or  toTuffer. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  verbs  ;  a&iv-e,  paflive, 
and  neuter  verbs. 

A  verb  a£Hve  expreffes  an  a&Ion,  and  necefTu- 
rily  implies  an  agent,  and  an  objeft  adled  upon  j 
as,  to  love  )  "Hove  Thomas." 

A  verb  pafiive  exprefles  a  paffion,  or  a  fuffer- 
ing,  or  the  receiving  of  an  a6Hon  ;  and  necefla- 
rily  implies  an  objecl:  acted  upon,  and  an  agent 
by  which  it  is  afled  upon;  as,  to  be  loved ;  ."'Tho-=> 
mas  is  loved  by  me." 

D2:  So 

fn]  "  Lt'jZr.  fyys  Mr.  Johnfon,  is  a  barh-arou's  corruption  ci 
hfs  formed  by  the  vujgar  f;\>m  the  huLit  of  tcruiiuating  compan 
ions  in  «-.'* 

"  Attend  to  what  a  Iffir  niyfe  indites. 'J  Addifon. 

"  The  -tongue  is  like  a  race-horfe  ;  which  runs  the  fuller,  the 

JeJJer  weight  it  carries."  Addifon,  Spedt.  No.  247. 

W offer  founds  much  more  barbarous,  only  becauielt  has  not 

been  fo  frequently  ufed. 

"  Changed  to  a  luorfcr  (hape  thoa  canfl  not  be.'' 

Shakcfpear,  I  Hen   VI. 
"  A  dreadful  quiet  felt  and  ivotfer  far 

That  arms,  a  i'uilen  interval  of  war."  Dryden,. 

The  fupcrhtive  /Bought  rather  to  be  written  \vkhout  tJieH^ 

being  contracted  from  Ifjjfyf ',   as  Dr.  Wallis  hath  long  ago  oh- 

fcrvcd.     Tlie  conjunction  of  the  fame  fcjiuid-  iiiight  bs  wiittcn 

with  the  at  ior  uiftiadion, 


30  INTRODUCTION  TO 

So  when  the  agent  takes  the  lead  in  the  fentence, 
the  verb  is  aclive,  and  is  followed  by  the  obje£l ; 
when  the  object  takes  the  lead,  the  verb  is  pailive, 
and  is  followed  by  the  agent. 

A  verb  neuter  exprefles  being,  or  a  ftate  or  con 
dition  of  being ;  when  the  agent  and  the  obje£t 
acled  upon  coincide,  and  the  event  is  property 
neither  adion  nor  paflion,  but  rather  fomething 
between  both  ;  as,  Jam,  I  fleep^  1  walk. 

The  verb  a£tive  is  called  alfo  tranfitive  ;  becaufe 
the  a£Hcn  paffeih  ever  to  the  objecSt,  or  hath  an 
effect  upon  fome  other  thing  :  and  the  verb  neuter 
is  called  intranfitive  •,  becaufe  the  effect  is  confined 
within  the  agent,  and  doth  not  pafs  over  to  any 
objea.  [i] 

In  Engiiih  many  verbs  are  ufed  both  in  an  active 
and  neuter  fignification,  the  conftruction  only  de 
termining  of  which  £/Wthey  are. 

To  the  fignification  of  the  verb  is  fuperadded 
the  defignation  ofperfon,  by  which  it  correfpcnds 
with  the  feveral  perfonal  pronouns j  of  number, 
by  which  it  correfponds  with  the  number  of  the 
noun,  fingular  or  plural  5  of  time,  by  which  it 

reprefents 

[i]  The  diftindion  between  verbs  abfrlutely  neuter,  as  tojleef 
and  verbs  adive  intranfitive,  **  to  walk,  though  founded  in  na 
ture  and  truth,  is  of  little  ufe  in  grammar.  Indeed  it  would  ra 
ther  perplex  than  affifc  the  learner;  for  the  difference  between 
verbs  aiiive  and  neuter,  as  tranfitive  and  intranfitive,  is  eafy  and 
obvious;  but  the  difference  between  verbs  abfolutely  neuter  and 
L'cranfitivcly  adive  is  not  always  clear.  But  however  thefe  latter 
may  differ  in  nature,  the  ccr.ftru<Slion  of  them  both  is  the  fame  ; 
and  grammar  is  rot  fo  much  concerned  with  their  real,  as  with 
their  grammatical  properties. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  31 

reprefents  the  being,  aclion,  or  paflion,  as  prefent, 
paft,  or  future-,  whether  imperfeclly  or  perfectly, 
that  is-*  whether  paffing  in  fuch  time,  or  then  fi- 
nifhed  ;  and  laftly  of  mode,  or  of  the  various  man 
ner  in  which  the  being,,  aclion,  or  paffion  is  ex- 
prefled. 

In  a  verb,  therefore,  are  to  be  confidered  the 
perfon,  the  number,  the  time,  and  the  mode. 

The  verb  in  fome  parts  of  it  varies  its  endings, 
to  exprefs  or  agree  with  different  perfons  of  the 
fame  number  ;  as,  I  love,  thou  toveft,  he  lovein^ 
or  loves. 

So  alfo  to  exprefs  different  numbers  of  the  fame 
perfon  ;  as,  Thou  love/I,  ye  love  j.  he  loveth,  they 
love.  [2] 

So  Hkewife  to  exprefs  different  times,  in  which 
any  thing  is  reprefented  as  being,  acling,  or  afted 
upon;  as,  I  love,  I  loved j  I  btar}  \bore,  I  have  born. 

The  mode  is  the  manner ^  of  reprefenting  the 
being,  a£Hon,  or  paffion.  When  it  is  Pimply  de- 
claredy  or  a  queflion  is  alked,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  declaration  concerning  it,  it  is  called  the  indica 
tive  mode  ;  as,  '  I  love,,  love/}  thou  ?'  when  it  is 

bidden 

[2]  In  the  plural  number  of  the  verb,  there  is  no  variation  of 
ending  to  exprefs  the  different  perfons,  and  the  three  perfons 
plural  are  the  fame  ulfo  with  the  firll  perfon  fingular;  moreover 
in  the  prefent  time  of  the  fubjunftive  mode  all  perfonat  variation 
is  wholly  dropped.  Yet «  this  fcanty  provision  of  terminations 
fufficient  for  all  the  purpcfcsof  difcourfe,  nor  does  any  ambiguity 
arife  from  it,  the  verb  being  always  attended  either  with  the  noun 
txpreffing  the  fubjedt  acting  or  a<5ted  upon,  or  the  pronoun  repre 
fenting  it.  For  which  reafon  the  plural  termination  in  en,  tLey 
ioven,  tley  weren,  formerly  in  life,  was  laid  afide  as  unncceflV.iy, 
and  hath  long  been  obfolete, 


32  INTRODUCTION  TO 


it  is  called  the  Imperative  ;  as,  '  love  them  :' 
when  it  is  fubjolned  as  the  end  or  defign,  or  men- 
tioned  under  a.  condition,  afuppofition,  or  the  like, 
for  the  mo  ft  part  depending  on  fome  other  verb, 
and  having  a  conjundion  before  it,  it  is  called  the 
Subjunctive  \  as,  '  If  I  love  ;  if  thou  !ave  :'  when 
it  is  barely  expreffed  'without  any  limitation  of  perfon 
or  number,  .it  is  called  the  Infinitive  ;  as,  s  to  fove  :' 
and  when  it  is  exprefTed  in  a...form  in  which  it  may 
be  joined  to  a  noun  as  its  quality  or  accident,  par* 
taking  thereby  of  the  nature  of  an  adjecliv.e,  it  is 
called  the  Participle  j  as,  *  loving.'  [3] 

But 

[3]  A  mode  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb,  denoting  the 
manner  in  which  a  tiling  is,  does,  or  fu-Tiers  ;  or  exprefung  an  in 
tention  of  mind  concerning  fuch  being,  doing,  or  Buffering.  As 
far  as  grammar  is  concerned,  there  are  no  more  modes  in  any 
language,  than  there  arc  forms  of  the  verb  appropriated  t«  the  de- 
notirg  of  fuch  different  in  inner?-  of  reprefentation.  l;or  inilanee, 
the  Greeks  have  a  peci:lr.u-  form  of  the  verb,  by  which  they  cx- 
prels  the  fubject  or  ruatttr  of  a  vviih,  which  properly  conrtitutts 
tn  optative  mode;  but  the  Latins  have  no  f  u<  h  form,  the  fubjcil: 
of  a  wifh  in  ii:-?ir  hnsjua^e  is  fubjoined  to  the  with  itfelf,  cither 
expreffed  or  implied,  as  lubfcqucnt  to  it  and  depending  on  it; 
they  have  therefore,  no  optative  mode,  hut  what  i*  expreffed  in 
that  mode  in  Greek,  falls  properly  under  the  fubjunctive  mode  in 
Latin.  For  the  iamcreafon,  in  Englifh,  the  levera)  cxpreiiion.!  of 
condi"iot:al  will,  poffiluliry,  liberty,  oldigation,  &c.  &c.  lomea'.l 
under  the  iuhjunclive  mode  ;  the  mere  exprefito-ns  of  will,  pofllbi- 
lity,  liberty,  obligation-,  &c.  belong  to  the  indicative  mode  :  it  is 
their  conditionally,  their  bei'-g  fui^fequeiit,  and  depending  upon 
fomething  preceding,  rliat  (Lt.crmirestln.rn  to  he  the  fuhjun^ive 
mode.  And  in  this  iramrr.jtical  modal  form,  however  they  u^y 
differ  in  other  refpecls  logically  or  metaph)  ficaily,  the  y  all  agree. 
That  will,  poffibility,  liberty,  obligation,  &c.  though  expreffed 
by  the  fame  verbs  that  are  occufionaiJy  uled  as  fubjunclive  auxili 
aries,  may  belong  to  the  indicative  mode  will  be  apparenc  frpm  a 
few  examples  : 

'  Here  we  may  reign  fecure.  - 

6  Or  of  th'  Jlteraai  co  eternal  beaui,' 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  33 

But  to  exprefs  the  time  of  the  verb  the  Eng- 
lifti  ufes  alfo  the  afliftance  of  other  verbs,  called 
therefore  Auxiliaries,  or  Helpers  ;  *&,  be,  have, 
Jhall,  will ;  as,  I  do  love,  I  did  love  ;  I  am  loved, 
I  ivas  loved  ;  I  have  loved,  I  have  been  loved  5  I 
fjjall,  or  will)  love,  or  be  loved/ 

The  two  principal  auxiliaries,  to  have,  and  to 
be>  are  thus  varied,  according  to  peribn,  number, 
time  and  mode, 

Time  is  prefent,  paft,  cr  future. 

TO 


May  I  exprefs  thee  unblam'd  ?— — — - 

*  Firm  they  might  have  itood* 
1  Yet  fell.' 

*  What  we  •would  do, 

'  WefoouM  do,  when  we  -would.  Shakefpear,  Hamlet . 

•  Is  this  the  nature 

Which  pafiion  could  not  (hake  ?  whofe  folid  virtue 
The  (hot  of  accident,  cr  dart  of  chance, 
Could  neither  raife,  nor  pierce  ?•  Id.  Othello. 

Thefe  fentences  are  al!  either  declarative,  or  fimply  interrogative; 
and  however  expreffive  of  will,  liberty,  poffibility  or  obligation, 
yet  the  verbs  are  all  of  the  indicative  mood, 

It  feems,  therefore,,  that  whatever  other  metaphyfical  modes 
there  may  be  in  the  theory  of  univerfal  grammar,  there  are  in 
Englifh  no  other  grammatical  modes  than  thofe  above  defcribed* 

That  the  participle  IF  a  mere  mode  of  the  verb,  is  manifeft, 
if  our  definition  of  a  verb  be  admitted  ;  for  it  fignifies  being, 
doing  or  fufferingv  with  the  defignation  of  time  fwperadded. 
But  if  the  effenceof  the  verb,  be  made  to  confift  in  affirmation, 
not  only  the  participle  will  be  excluded  from  its  place  in  the  verb, 
but  the  infinitive  itfelf  alfo  ;  which  certain  ancient  grammarians 
of  great  authority,  held  to  be  alone  the  genuine  verb,  denying 
£hat  title  to  all  the  other  modes.  See  Hermes,  p.  164. 


34  INTRODUCTION  TO 

TO    HAVE 

Indicative  mode. 

Prefint  time. 

Sing;.  P!ur. 

5?"      I.   I  have,  We   -v 

Hp      2.  Thou  haft,  [4]  Ye       }>  have. 

?       3.   He  hath,  or  has  ^[5]  TheyJ          Pafl 

[4]  T/'OK  in  the  polite,  and  even  in  the  familiar  ftyle  is  dif- 
tifcd,  and  the  plural  you  is  employed  infteadoi  it  ;  we  lay,  you 
have)  not  iiou  haj}.  Though  in  this  cafe,  we  apply  you  to  a  fmgle 
perfon-,  yet  the  verb  too  mull  agree  with  it  in  the  plural  num 
ber  ;  it  mud  neceffarily  be,  you  have  ;  not  \oa  hajl.  You  -was,  the 
fecond  perfon  plural  of  the  pronoun  placed  in  agreement  with 
the  firft  or  third  perfon  fingular  of  the  verb,  is  an  enormous 
folecifm,  and  yet  authors  of  the  firft  rank  have  inadvertently 
fallen  into  it.  *  Knowing  that  yw  ivas  my  old  rnafter's  good 
friend.'  Addifon,  Speft.  No  517.  «  The  account  you  -was 
pleafed  to  fend  me.'  Bently,  Phileleuch.  Lipf.  Part  "IJ .'  Let 
ter.  *  Would  to  God  you  tvas  within  her  reach.'  Bolingbrcke 
to  Swift,  Letter  46.  *  If  you  tvas  here.'  Ditto,  Letter  47. 
*  I  am  jiift  now  as  well,  as  when  yoy  ivas  here.'  Pope  to  Swift, 
P.  S.  to  Letter  56.  On  the  contrary  the  folemn  ityle  admits 
not  of  you  for  a  jingle  pcrfon.  This  hath  led  Mr.  Pope  into  a 
great  impropriety  in  the  beginning  of  his  Mefliah  ; 
"  O  tbou  my  voice  inlpire, 
Who  twtcVd  Ifaiah's  hallaw'd  lips  with  tire !" 
The  folemnity  of  the  flyle  wotilJ-  not  admit  of  you  for  thau  in 
thepfonoun;  nor  the  meafure  of  the  verfe  twclidj^  or  didft  touch > 
in  the  verb,  as  it  indifpenfably  ought  to  be,  in  the  one,  or  the 
other  of  thcfe  two  forms  ;  ^>t>ut  who  ioufbeJ,  or  than  who  t(ntchs^t 
cr  di.ij}  touch. 

•What  art  thou,  fpeak,  that  on  deGgrns  unknown, 
While  others  fleep,  thus  range  the  camp  alone  ?' 

Pope's  Iliad,   x.    9Q. 

*  Accept  thefe  grateful  tears,  for  thee  they  flow, 
For  t&ce,  that  zverftlt  another's  woe.' 

Again  : 

*  jult  of  thy  word,  in  every  thought  fincere. ; 

Who  knew  no  wilhj  but  what  the  world  might  hear.' 

Pope-,  £pltaph. 
It  ought  to  beynur  in  the  fir  ft  line,  or  knew  eft  in  the  i'econd 

In  order  to  avoid  this  grammatical  iruonvemcnce,  the  two 
di{Hn<£b  forms  of  ihou  and  you,  are  often  ufed  proir..>  u  "vifly  iiy 
our  mo.dern  poets,,  in  th<:  fun.c  paragraph,  a^id  t,ven  .ii>  tiic  i.ims 
fentence,  very  inelegantly  and  improperly  :  *  NOKT 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  3>- 

.Pajl  time. 

1.  I  had,  We    -) 

2.  Thou  harm,  Ye     [had. 

3.  He  had  j:  They 3 

'Future  time* 

1.  Khali,  or  will,  "1  We   1  (hall, 

2.  Thou  lhalt,  or  wilt,  [6J I  have  ;  Ye     >  or  will, 

3.  He  fhall,  or  will.         J  They}  have. 

Imperative  mode. 

i,   Let  me  have,  Let  us  have, 

1  ':';ou,  Have  ye, 

Do  thou  have,  or,   Do  ye  have, 

3.  Let  him  have.  Let  them  have. 

Subjunctive  mode. 
Prefint  time, 

1.  I  ^  We    "I 

2.  Thou  £  have;  Ye     >•  have. 

3.  He  3  They  3 

Infinitive 

*  Now,  now,  1  feize,  I  clafp  tly  charms  ; 

And  now  you  burft,  ah  cruel !  from  my.  arms.'  Pope. 

[5]  Hath  properly  belongs  to  the  ferious  and  folemn  ftyle  ; 
lat  to  the  familiar.  The  fame  may  be  obferved  of  dotb  and  does. 

*  But,  confounded  with  thy  art, 

Inquires  her  name,  that  las  his  heart.'  Waller. 

4  The  unwearied  fun  from  day  to  day 

Does  his  Creator's  pow'r  difplay.'  Addifon. 

The  nature  of  the  ftyle,  as  well  as  the  harmony  of  the  veric. 
feems  to  require  in  thefe  places  hath  and  doth. 

[6]  The  auxiliary  verb  will  is  always  thus  formed  in  the  fecond 
and  third  perfons  fingular ;  but  the  verb  to  ivi!/,  not  being-  an 
auxiliary,  is  formed  regularly  in  thofe  perfons,  I  iviil,  thou 
ivtilefi,  He  ivilleth  or  •wills.  *  Thou,  that  art  the  author  and 
beftower  of  life,  canft  doubtlefs  reftore  it  if  thou  ivill'ft,  and 
when  thou  wiH'/l;  but  whether  thou  ivilffl  (wilt)  pleafe  to  re- 
ftore  if,  or  not,  that  thou  alone  knoweft.'  Atterbary,  Serm. 
I.  7. 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Prefent, 


Prefent, 


Infinitive  mode. 

To  have  ;      Paft,     To  have  had. 
Participle. 


1.  I  am, 

2.  Thou  art, 

3.  He  is. 


Having ;     Perfect, 
Paft,  Having  had. 

TO    BE. 

Indicative  mode. 
Prejent  time. 

We 
Ye 
They 
Or, 


Had-; 


I  be,  We 

Thoubeeft,  Ye 

He  is  ;  [8]  They 

Paft  time. 

I  was,  We 

Thou  waft,  Ye 

He  was.  They 

Future  time. 
x.   I  (hall,  or  will,         1  We 

2.  Thou  (halt,  or  wilt,  £  be;      Ye 

3.  He  (hall,  or  will,    J  They 


are 


be, 


were 


1    fhall 
?•    or  will 
}    be. 

Imperative 


[7]  This  participle  reprefents  the  action  as  complete  and 
finiftied  ;  and  being  fuhjoined  to  the  auxiliary  to  have,  conflitutes 
the  perfect  times,  1  call  it  therefore  the  perfect  participle.  The 
fame,  fubjoined  to  the  auxiliary  to  l>et  conftitutes  the  paffive 
verb,  and  in  thatftate,  or  when  vfed  without  the  auxiliary  in  a 
paflive  fenfe,  is  called  the  paifive  participle. 

[8]  *  1  think  it  be  thine  indeed,  for  thou  lieft  in  it.'  Shakef- 
pear,  Hamlet.  Be,  in  the  fingular  number  of  this  time  and 
mode,  efpecially  in  the  third  perfon,  is  obfolcte  ;  aud  is  become 
fomewhat  antiquated  in  the  plural. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  37 

Imperative  mode, 

1.  Let  me  be,  Let  us  be, 

2.  Be  thou,  Be  ye, 

or,  Do  thou  be,  or,  Do  ye  be, 

3.  Let  him  be.  Let  them  be... 

Subjunctive  mode. 
Prefent  time. 

1.  I  J  We        7 

2.  Thou  f    be;  Ye          £    be. 

3.  He  3  They     3 

Pafl  time. 

1 .  I  were,  We        T 

2.  Thouwert,  [9]  Ye          >    were. 

3.  He  were.  They      3 

Infinitive  mode. 
Prefent,  to  be  ;  Paft,  to  have  been. 

Participle. 
Prefent,  being  ;  Perfect,  been  ; 

Pad,  having  been. 

The   verb    active,    is   thus    varied    according   to 
perfon,  number,  time  and  mode, 

E  Indicative 

[9]  '  Before  the  fun, 

Before  the  Heav'ns  thou  ivert  ,'  Milton. 

'  Remember  what  thou  ivert S  Dryden. 

4  1  knew  thou  ivert  not  ilo*/  to  hear.'  Addifon. 

*  Thou  who  of  old  ivert  fer.t  to  ifracl's  court.*  Prior. 

*  All  this  thou  inert?-*  •  Pope* 

*  Thou  Stella,  inert  no  longer  young, 

When  firft  for  thee  my  harp  I  ftrung.'  Swift. 

Shall  we  in  deference  to  thefe  great  authorities  allow  ivert  to  be 
the  lame  with  iwjl,  and  common  to  the  indicative  and  fubjunc- 
tive  mode  ?  or  rather  abide  by  the  praclice  of  our  beft  ancient 
writers ;  the  propriety  of  the  language,  which  requires,  a^  far 
as  may  be,  diilincl  forms,  for  different  modes  ;  and  the  analogy  of 
formation  in  each  mode;  I  -luai;,  thou  waft;  I  ivere,-ti\ou  tvcri?  all 
which  confpire  to  make  tuert  peculiar  to  the  fubju»t5live  mode. 


3&  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Indicative  mode. 

Prefent  time. 

Sing.  Plur. 

a?      i.  Hove,  We    } 

§v    2.  Thou  loveft,  Ye      Move, 

3.  He  loveth,  or  loves;  They  3 

Pajl  time. 

1.  I  loved,  We          1 

2.  Thou  loved  ft,  Ye  Moved. 

3.  He  loved.  They        J 

.  Future  time* 

1.  I  fhall,  or  will,  ^  We  }fhall 

2.  Thou  {halt,  or  wilt,     Move;  Ye     >or  will 

3.  He  ihall  or  will,  3  They  3  love. 

Imperative  mode. 

1.  Let  me  love,  Let  us  love,  [i] 

2.  Love  thou,  Love  ye, 

or,  Do  thou  love,  or,  Do  ye  love, 

3.  LeJ^Jiim  love  ;  Let  them  love. 

^^  Subjun&ive  mode. 

Prefent  time. 

1.  I  1  We 

2.  Thou  Move;  Ye          Move. 

3.  He  3  They 

AND, 

1.  I  may  "^  We      "^    may  love  ; 

2.  Thou  mayeft    >  love;  Ye       >  and 

3.  He  may  J  They  3  have  loved.  [2j 


J 
3 


[i]  The  other  form  of  the  firft  perfon  plural  of  the  Impera 
tive,  love  ive  is  grown  obfolete. 

[2]  Note,  that  the  imperft?<ft  and  perfedl  times  are  here  put 
together.  And  it  is  to  be  obfcrved,  that,  in  the  fiabjurxftive 

n.cde, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  39 

P.J1  time. 

1.  I  mights'  ^  We  ")  might  love  ; 

2.  Thou  mighteft    >  love;  Ye  >  and 

3.  He  might  J  3  have  loved.  [2] 

AND, 

I  could;,   mould,  would;  Thou  couldft,    &c. 
love  •,   and  have  loved. 

Infinitive  mode. 
Prefent,  to  love  :  Pad,  to  have  loved. 

Participle. 

Prefent,  loving ;  Perfect:,  loved  j  Pad,  having  loved. 
But  in  difeourfe,  we  have  often  occafion  to 
fpeak  of  time,  not  only  as  prefent,  part,  and  fu 
ture,  at  large  and  indeterminately  ;  but  alfo  as 
fuch  with  fome  particular  difiin&ion  of  limitation 
that  is,  as  pafiing,  or  nnilhed,  as  imperfecl:  or 
perfect.  This  will  bed  be  feen  in  an  example  of 
a  verb,  laid  out  and  didributed  according  to  thefe 
diftin6lions  of  time. 

Indefinite  or  undetermined  time. 
Prefent,  Pad,  Future. 

I  lovej  I  loved  5  I  mall  love. 

Definite 

mode,  the  event  being  fpoken  of  under  a  condition  or  fuppofi- 
•tion,  or  in  the  form  of  a  wifh,  and  therefore  as  doubtful  and  con 
tingent,  the  verb  itfelf  in  the  prefent,  and  the  auxiliary  borh  of 
the  prefent  and  pad  imperfecl:  times,  often  carry  with  them 
fomewhat.  of  a  future  ienfe  :  as,  '  If  he  c©me  to-morrow,  I  may 
fp^ak  to  him:'———'  If  he  fhould,  or  would,  come  to-morrow, 
I  might,  would,  could,  or  ihould,  fpeak  to  him.'  Obferve  alfo, 
that  the  Auxillaries^ow/^  and  would  in  the  imperfecl;  times  are 
ufed  to  exprefs  the  prefent  ar.d  future  as  well  as  the  paft  ,  as,  *  It 
is  my,.defire  that  hcjlould,  or  ivoutd  cume  noiv,  or  to-morroiv ; '  as 
\vcll  as,  '  !t  iv zs  my  defire  tlrat  \\cjhonld  or  would,  come  yejleniay.' 
So  that  in  this  mode  the  precife  time  of  the  verb  is  very  much 
determined  by  the  nature  and  drift  of  the Tentence. 


40  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Definite  or  determined  time* 
Prefent  imperfect:      I  am  (new)  loving. 
Prefent  perfect  :          I  have  (now)  loved. 
Paft  imperfect :  I  was  (then)  loving. 

Paft  perfea  ;  I  had  (then)  loved. 

Future  imperfect:      I  fhall  (then)  be  loving. 
Future  perfect:  I  {hall  (then)  have  loved. 

It  is  needlefs  here  to  fet  down  at  large  the  feve- 
>al  variations  of  the  definitive  timt-s;  as  they  confift 
only  in  the  proper  variations  of  the  auxiliary,  join 
ed  to  the  prefent  or  perfect  participle  ;  which 
have  been  already  given. 

To  exprefs  the  prefent  and  pad  imperfect  of 
:nc  active  and  neuter  verb,  the  auxiliary  do  is 
fcmetimcs  ufed  :  I  do  (now)  love  ;  I  did  (then) 
love. 

Thus  with  very  little  variation  of  the  principal 
verb,  the  feveral  circumftances  of  mode  and  time, 
are  clearly  exprefied  by  the  help  of  the  auxiliaries 
le,  have,  do,  let,  may,  can,  Jball,  will. 

The  peculiar  force  of  the  feveral  auxiliaries,  is 
to  be  obferved.  Do  and  dV*/ mark  the  action  itfelf 
or  the  time  of  it,  ("3]  with  greater  form  and  diflinc- 

tion, 

[3]  '  Perdition  catch  ray  foul 

But  I  do  lovethee  ! ' 

'  This  to  me 
In  dreadful  fecrecy  impart  they  did.'  Shnkefpear. 

4  Die  he  certain ly  did  '  Sherlock,  vol.  i 

•  Yes,  I  oV./love  her;'  that  is,  at  that  time,  or  once  ;  intimating 
a  negation,  or  doubt,  of  prefent  love. 

'  The  Lord  culled  Samuel:  and  he  ran  r.ruo  I'.li.  and  faid, 
Here  am  1,  for  thou  calledfi  me. — And  the  LorJ  calltd  )cf  ugain, 
Samuel.  And  Samuel  arofc  and  v/cnt  to  Eli,  and  laid,  1'It.rt  a^u 
1,  fur  t'hou  r//^?  call  me.'  I  ii'ivi,  iii.  4. — 6. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  41 

tion.      They  are  alfo  of  frequent  and  almoft  necef- 
fary  ufe   in  interrogative   and  negative  fentences* 
They  fometimes  alfo   fupply  the  place  of  another 
verb,  and  make  the   repetition  of  it,   in  the  fame 
or  afubfequent  fentence  unneceiTary  :   as, 
"He  loves  not  plays, 
As  thou  deft,.  Anthony.. 

Shaksfpear,  Jul.   GxF. 

Let  does  not  only  exprefs  permiffion  ;  but  praying, 
exhorting,  commanding.  May zn&.mlght  exprefs 
the  liberty  or  pofiibility  of  doing  a  thing;  can  and 
could,  the  power.  Mujl  is  fometimes  called  in 
for  a  helper,  and  denotes  neceffity.  Will,  in  the 
fir  ft  perfon  fingular  and.  plural,,  promifes.  or.  threat 
ens  ;  in  the  fecond  and  third  perfons,  only;  fore 
tells  :  jlisll  on  the  contrary,  in  the  firfL perfon, 
(imply  foretells;  in  the  fecond  and  third :perfons> 
promifes,  commands,  or  threatens.  [4]  But  this-* 
muft  be  underftood  of  explicative,  fentences  ;  for 
when. the  fentence  is  interrogative.,  juft  the  reverfe 
for  the  mod'  part  takes  place  :-.  thus,  "\J1jall  go; 
you  <zu///go  j"'  exprefs  event:  only  :  but,  "  ivi/tyou. 
go  ?"  imports  intention  :  and  "JbaI/1  go  ?"  refers 
to  the  will  of  another.  But  again,  "  hzfoall  go," 
and  "fiall  he  go .?"  both  imply  will,  expr effing  or 
referring  to  a  command.  Would  primarily  denotes 
inclination  of ,  will ;  and^w/r/,  obligation:  but 
E  2  they 

[^]  This  diftin&ion  was  not  obferved  formerly  as  to  the  word 
foall^  which  was  ufed   in   the  feeond  and  third  perfons  to  exprefs 
limply  the  event.     So  likewife^w/A/  was  ufed,  where  we  now 
inuke.ufc  of  ivou^t     See  the  vulgar  traaflaiigaof  the 


^fc  INTRODUCTION  TO 

they  both  vary  tK'eir  import,  and  are  often  ufed  to 
exprefs  fimple  event. 

Do  and  have  make  the  prefent  time  -,  did,  had, 
[5]  the  pail ;  Jfjall,  will,  the  future  ;  let  is  em 
ployed  in  forming  the  imperative  mode ;  may, 
mighty  could,  would,  Jhculd,  in  forming  the  fub- 
juntlive.  The  prepofition  to,  placed  '.before  the 
verb,  makes  the  infinitive  mode.  jt>]  Have, 

through 

[5]  Tt  has  been  very  rightly  obferved,  that  the  verb  had  in 
the  common  phrafe,  /  had  rather,  is  riot  properly  ufed,  either  as 
an  active,  or  as  an  auxiliary  verb;  that,  being  in  the  pa  ft  time, 
it  cannot  in  this  cafe  be  properly  expreffive  of  time  preltnt  ;  and 
that  it  is  by  no  means  reduceable  to  any  grammatical  conftruo 
tion.  In  truth,  it  feemsto  have  arifen  from  a  mere  milrake,  in 
refolving  the  familiar  arwfcambiguous  abbreviation,  Pd  rather, 
into  I  had  rather,  inftead  of  I  ivculd  rather  ;  which  latter  is  the 
regular,  analogous  and  proper  exprelTion.  See  two  grammatical 
tffays.  London,  1768.  Lffay  i. 

[6]  Bifhop  Wilkins  gives  the  following  elegant  inveftigaticn 
of  the  modes  in  his  real charatfcr.  Part  iii.  chap.  5. 

*  To  fhew  in  what  manner  the  fubjecl;  is  to  be  joined  with  his 
predicate,  the  copula  between  them  is  affecled  with  a  particle  ; 
which,  from  the  ufe  of  it,  is  called  modus  the  manner  or  mode. 

Now  the  fuhjecl  and  predicate  may  be  joined  together  either 
fimply,  or  with  fome  kind  of  limitation ;  and  accordingly  thefe 
modes  are  primary  or  fccondary. 

The  primary  modes  are  called  by  grammarians  indicative  and 
imperative. 

When  the  matter  is  declared  to  be  fo,  or  at  leaft  when  it  feems 
in  the  fpeaker's  power  to  have  it  to  be  fo,  as  the  bare  union  of 
fubjecl:  and  predicate  would  import ;  then  the  copula  is  nakedly 
expreffed  without  any  variation  :  and  this  manner  of  exprefling 
it  is  called  the  indicative  mode. 

When  it  is  neither  declared  to  be  fo,  nor  feems  to  be  immedi 
ately  in  the  fpeaker's  power  to  have  it  fo  ;  then  he  can  do  no 
more  in  words,  but  make  out  the  expreflion  of  his  will  to  him 
that  hath  the  thing  in  his  power  :  namely,  to 


r     Superior,  ~)  C     Petition.         ~\ 

Equal,  C       by        <     Perfuafion,      >  and  the 

C     Inferior,  j  £     ComaaanJ,     j 


his 

(_     Inferior,  j  £     Command,     j 

manner 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  44 

through  its  feveral  modes  and  times,  is  placed  only 
before  the  perfe&  participle  ;  and  be,  in  like  man 
ner,  before  the  prefent  and  paflive  participles  :  the 
reft  only  before  the  verb,  or  another  auxiliary,  in 
its  primary  form. 

When  an  auxiliary  is  joined  to  the  verb,  the 

auxiliary  gjoes  through  all  the  variations  of  perfon 

•  and 

manner  of  thefe  affecting  the  copula,  (be  it  fo,  or  let  it  be  fo) 
is  called  the  imperative  mode  ;  or  which  there  are  thefc  three 
varieties,  very  fit  to  be  ciitHruftiy  provided  for.  As  for  that 
other  ufe  of  the  imperative  mode,  when  it  fignifies  femn[jlon  ; 
tliis  may  be  fuificiently  exprefied  by  the  fecondary  mode  of  liberty  ; 
you  may  do  it. 

The  fecondary  modes  are  fuch,  as,  when  the  copula  is  affected 
with  any  of  them,  make  the  fentence  to  be  (as  logicians  call  it) 
a  modal  proportion. 

This  happens,  when  the  matter  in  difcourfe,  namely,  the 
being,  or  doing,  or  infferings  of  a  thing,  is  confidered,  noty?^- 
y»/V  by  itfelf,  but  gradually  in  its  caufes  \  from  which  it  proceeds 
cither  contingently,  or  neceffarily. 

Then  a  thing  feeins  to  be  left  as  contingent,  when  the  fpeaker 
expreiTesoniy  the  poj/ibility  of  it,  or  his  own  liberty  to  it. 

I.  The  foffibility  of  a  thing  depends  upon  the  power  of  its 
caufe  ;  and  may  be  exprefied, 


when         \     al^   ,      I      by  the  participle      J     ""  /. 
£      conditional,      y  £      could^ 

2.  The  liberty  of  a  thing  depends  upon  a  freedom  from  all  ob- 
ftacles  either  within  ur  without,  and  is  ufually  exprefled  in  our 
language. 

"h«        l.Sl/,     }       bjthepartic,e 

Then  a  thing  feemsto  he  of  necefllty,  when  the  fpeaker  ex  prefT- 
eth  the  refolution  of  his  own  will,  or  fome  other  obligation  upon 
him  from  without. 

The  inclination  of  the  ivill  is  exprcffed, 

•  r  C      absolute.  ~)       i        i  •  1          C      ivilZi 

11  |     Jnditi^al,       {      by  the  particle      |     ^ 

4.  The  neceflity  of  a  thing  from  fome  external  obligation,  whe 
ther  natural  or  moral,  which  we  call  duty,  is  exprefled, 

»bfilute          >      bythepartiele      J  ^V^StS 
conditional)      $  I  muff,  ought  ,  fioie/Ji. 

See  alfo  Hermes,  Book  I.  chap,  viii, 


44  INTRODUCTION  TO 

and  number  ;  and  the  verb  itfelf  continues  invari 
ably  the  fame.  When  there  are  two  or  more 
auxiliaries  joined  to  the  verb,  the  firft  of  them 
only  is  varied  according  totheperfon  and  number. 
The  auxiliary  muft^  admits  of  no  variation. 

The  paffive  verb  is  only  the  participle  paffive 
(which,  for  the  mofl  part  is  the  fame  with  the  in* 
definite  paft  time  a6Hve,  and  always  the*  fame  with 
the  perfecl  participle,)  joined  to  the  auxiliary  verb 
to  bet  through  all  its  variations  :  as  I  am  loved ;  I 
iv as  loved  •,  I  have  been  loved;  \fiall  b£  loved  ;  and 
fo  on,  through  all  the  perfons,  the  numbers,,  the 
times,  and  the  modes, 

The  neuter  verb  is  varied  like  the  active  ;  but,, 
having  fomewLat  of  the  nature  of  the  paflive,  ad 
mits  in  many  inftances  of  the  paffive  form,  retain 
ing  flill  the  neuter  figniiication  ;  chiefly  in  fueh 
verbs,  as  fignify  fome  fort  of  motion,  or  change 
of  place  or  condition  :  as,  lam-come--;  \ivasgone; 
I  am  grown  ;  I  ivas  fallen.  [7]  The  verb  am  in 

this 

[7]  I  doubt  much  of  the  propriety  of  the  following  exam 
ples  :  '  The  rules  of  our  holy  religion,  from  which  we  are  iofi- 
nicely  fwerwd.1  Tillotlon,  vol.  i.  Serin,  ay.  '  The  whole  obli- 
gatio'n  af  that  law  and  covenant,  which  God  made  with' the 
Jews,  wasalfo  ceafal,'  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  Serm.  52.  '  Whofe  number 
•was  now  amounted  to  three  hundred.'  Swift's  contefts  and  diffeu- 
fions,  chap,  iii.  '  This  Marefchal  upon  fome  difcontent,  -was 
entered  into  a  confpiracy  agajnft  his  maiter.'  Addifon,  Freeholder, 
No.  31.  Neuter  verbs  are  fometimes  employed  very  improperly 
as  adhves:  (  Go,  fee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah.'  Amos 
vii.  12.  '  I  think  it  by  no  means  a  fit  and  decent  thing  to.  -jie 
tbarities,  and  erect  the  reputation  of  one  upon  the  ruins  of  ano 
ther.'  Atterbury,  Serm,  I.  29.  '  So  many  learned  men,  that 
have  fpent  their  \vhcle  time  aud  pains  to  agree  the  facred  w«th 

the 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  45 

this  cafe  precifely  defines  the  time,  of  the  aftion 
or  event,  but  does  not  change  the  nature  of  it ; 
the  paffive  form  dill  exprefling,  not  properly  a 
paffion,  but  only  a  ilate  or  condition  of  being. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

5N  Englifh  both  the  pail  time  active  and  the 
participle  perfect,  or  pnflive,  are  formed  by 
adding  to  the  verb  ed,  or  d  only,  when  the  verb 
ends  in  e :  as,  turn,  turned;  /ove,  loved.  The 
verbs  that  vary  from  this  rule,  in  either  or  in  both 
cafes,  are  edeemed  irregular. 

The  nature  of  our  language,  the  accent  and 
prounciation  of  it,  inclines  us  to  contract  even  all 
our  regular  verbs :  thus  loved,  turned,  are  com 
monly  pronounced  in  one  fyll  »ule,  fov'd,  turnd : 
and  the  fecond  perfon,  which  was  originally  in 
three  fyllables,  lovedefl,  turnedeft,  is  now  become 
a  difTyllable,  lovcdjl,  turndjl :  for  as  we  generally 
throw  the  accent  as  far  back  as  poflible  towards 
the  firft  part  of  the  word,  (in  fome  even  to  the 
fourth  fyilable  from  the  end)  the  ftrefs  being  laid 

an 

the  profane  chronology.'  Sir  William  Temple,  Works,  FoL  vol. 
p.  296. 

'   Mow  would  tic  GaJs  my  righteous  toils  fucceed! 

Pope,  OclyiF.  xiv.  447. 

• --'   If  Jcveihh  atmfucceeit?  Ibid,  xxi.   219. 

And  active  verbs  are  as  improperly  made  neuter:  as,  '  I  mull 
fmmife  with  three  circumftances.'  Swift,  Q^_  Ann's  laft  Mi- 
niftry.  chap.  %.  '  'J  hofe  that  think  to  Ingratiate  with  him  by 
calumniaung  me-.'  Bentley,,  Diflert.  on.  Phalaris,  p.  159, 


46  INTRODUCTION  TO 

on  the  firft  fyllables,  the  reft  are  pronounced  in  a 
lower  tone,  more  rapidly  and  indiiiinc~lly  •,  and  fo 
are  often  either  wholly  dropped,  or  blended  into 
one  another. 

It  fometimes  happens  alfo,  that  the  word,  which 
arifes  from  a  regular  change,  does  not  found  eafily 
or  agreeably  ;  fometimes  by  the  rapidity  of  our 
pronunciation  the  vowels  are  ihortened  or  loil ; 
and  the  confonants,  which  are  thrown  together, 
do  not  eafily  coalefce  with  one  another,  and  are 
therefore  changed  imo  others  of  the  fame  organ, 
or  of  a  kindred  fpecies.  This  occalions  a  farther 
deviation  from  the  regular  form  :  thus,  lowth, 
iurneth,  are  contracted  into  lov'th,  turiflh,  and 
thefe  for  eafier  pronunciation  immediately  become 
loves,  iurns. 

Verbs  ending  in  cb,  ckj  p,  x,  II,  fs,  in  the  pad 
time  a£Hve,  and  the  participle  perfect  or  pafiive, 
admit  the  change  of  td  into  /  ;  as,  [8]  fnatcbt, 
cbtiktj  fnapt)  tnixt,  dropping  alfo  one  of  the  dou 
ble  letters,  dwelt,  paft  -,  for  fnatcbed,  checked, 
fnappt  d,  mixed,  dwelled,  pajfid :  thofe  that  end 
in  /,  m,  n,  p,  after  a  diphthong,  moreover  Ihorten 
the  diphthong,  or  change  it  into  a  fingle  fhort 
vowel ;  as  dealt,  dreamt,  meant,  felt,  Jlept,  &c. 
all  for  the  fame  reafon  -,  from  the  quicknefs  of  the 
pronunciation,  and  becaufe  the  d  after  a  ihort 

vowel 

[8]  Some  of  thefe  contractions  are  harfli  and  difagreeable ; 
and  it  were  better,  if  they  were  avoided  and  difufed  :  but  they 
prevail  in  common  difcuurfe,  and  are  admitted  into  poetry ; 
which  latter  indeed  cannot  well  do  without  than. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  47 

vowel  will  not  eafily  coalefce  with  the  preceding 
confonant.  Thofe  that  end  in  ve  change  ?.lfo  v  into 
f;  as  bereave,  bereft  ,•  leave,  left ;  becaufe  like- 
wife  v  after  a  fhort  vowel  will  not  eafily  coalefce 
with  /. 

All  thefe,  of  which  I  have  hitherto  given  ex 
amples,  are  confidered  not  as  irregular,  but  as 
contracted  only ;  in  moft  of  them  the  intire  as 
well  as  the  contracted  form  is  ufed;  and  the  in 
tire  form  is  generally  to  be  preferred  to  the  con- 
tra&ed. 

The  formation  of  verbs  in  Englifh,  both  regular 
and  irregular,  is  derived  from  the  Saxon. 

The  irregular  verbs  in  Englifh  are  all  monofyl- 
lables,  unlefs  compounded  ;  and  they  are  for  the 
moft  part  the  fame  words  which  are  irregular  verbs 
in  the  Saxon. 

As  all  our  regular  verbs  are  fubjecl:  to  fome 
kind  of  contraction  ;  fo  the  fir  ft  clafs  of  irregulars 
is  of  thofe  that  become  fo  from  the  fame  caufe. 

I. 

Irregulars  by  contraction. 

Some  verbs  ending  in  d  or  /  have  the  prefent,  the 
paft  time,  and  the  participle  perfect  and  paffive, 
all  alike,  without  any  variation:  as,  beat,  burft,  [9] 

caft, 

[9]  Thefe  two  have  alfo  beaten  and  lurjlen  in  the  participles; 
and  in  that  form  they  belong  to  the  third  clafs  of  Irregulars. 


43  INTRODUCTION  TO 

caft,  [ij  coft,  cut,  heat,  [2]  hit,  hurt,  knit,  lift,* 
[3]  light,  [4]  put,  quit,*  read,  [5]  rent,  rid,  fet, 
fhed,  fhred,  fhut,  flit,  fplit,  [6]  fpread,  thruft, 
wet.* 

Thefe  are  contractions  from  beated,  bur/ted, 
cajledy  &c.  becaufe  of  the  difagreeable  found  of 
the  fy liable  ed  after  d  or  t.  [7] 

Others  in  the  paft  time,  and  participle  perfect 
and  pafiive,  vary  a  little  from  the  prefent,  by 
Shortening  the  diphthong,  or  changing  the  d  into 

t; 

[i]  Shakefpear  ufesthe  particle  in  the  regular  form  : 
'  And  when  the  mind  is  quicken 'it,  out  of  doubt 
The  organs,  tho'  defunct  and  dead  before, 
Break  up  their  drowfie  grave,  and  newly  move 
With  cafted  Hough,  and  frefh.  celerity.'  Hen.  V. 

[a]  '  He  commanded,  that  they  fhould  heat  the  furnace  one 
feven  times  more  than  it  was  wont  to  be  beat.*  Dan.  iii.  19. 

[3]  The  verbs  marked  thus,*  throughout  the  three  claffes  of 
irregulars,  have  the  regulars  as  well  as  the  irregular  form  in  ufe. 

[4]  This  verb  in  the  pad  time  and  participle  is  pronounced 
fhort,  light,  or///:  but  the  regular  form  is  preferable,  and  pre 
vails  moft  in  writing. 

[5]  This  verb  in  the  pafl  time  and  participle  is  pronounced 
fhort  ;   read,  red,  red;    like  lead,  led,  led;  and   perhaps   ought   te 
be  written  in  this  manner  :    Our  ancient  writers  fpeit  it  redde* 
[6J  Shakefpear  ufes  the  participle  in  the  regular  form  : 

•  That  felf  hand, 

"Which  writ  his  honor  in  the  ads  it  did, 
Hath,  with  the  courage  which  the  heart  did  lend  it, 
Splitted  the  heart  itfelf.'  Ant.  and  Cleop. 

[7]  They  follow  the  Saxon  rule  :  *  Verbs  which  in  the  infini- 
tire  end  in  dan  and  tan."1  (that  is,  in  Engliih,  d  and  / ;  for  art 
is  only  the  characleriftic  termination  of  the  Saxon  infinite  ;  ('  in 

*  the  preterit  and  participle  preterit  commonly,  for  the  lake  of 

*  better  found,    throw  away  the  final  ed\  as  beat,  afcJ,  (both  in 

*  the  preterit  and  participle  preteru)  for  beoted,  afeded\  from  beolan, 

*  afedan.'     Hickes,  Grammat.  Sax.  chap.  ix.     So  the  fame  Verbs 
in  Engllfh,  teat,  fed,  inftead  of  bcatcd,  /ceded. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  49 

#;  as,  lead,  led ;  fweat,  [8]  fwet  ;*  meet,  met ; 
bleed,  bled  ;  breed,  bred  ;  feed,  fed  ;  fpeed,  fped  ; 
bend,  bent;*  lend,  lent ;  rend,  rent;  fend,  fent; 
fpend,  fpent;  build,  built;  geld,  gelt;*  gild  gilt  j 
gird,  girt  ;*  lofe,  loft. 

Others  not  ending  in  d  or  /  are  formed  by  con 
traction  ;  have,  had  for  haved ;  make,  made,  for 
waked i  flee,  jM,  ivrfte-ed;  moe,yW,  forjloe-ed. 

The  following,  befide  the  contraction,  change 
alfo  the  vowel ;  fell,  fold ;  tell,  told ;  clothe, 
clad.* 

Stand,  flood ;  and  dare,  durft,  (which  in  the 
participle  hath  regularly  dared] ;  are  directly  from 
the  Saxon,  Jfahdan%  Jlode  ;  dyrrany  dwjte. 

II. 

Irregulars  m  ght. 

The  irregulars  of  the  fecond  clafs  end  in  ght, 
both  in  the  pad  time  and  participle  ;  and  change 
the  vowel  or  diphthong  into  an  or  ou  :  they  are 
taken  from  the  Saxon  in  which  the  termination 
is  bte. 

Saxon. 

Bring,          brought :  Bringan,         brohte. 

Buy,  bought :  Bycgean,        bohte. 

Catch,         caught : 

F  Fight 

[8]    '  How  the  drudging  gobliu/H;<rf,'  Milton  Allegro. 

Shakefpear  ufcsfiveaten,  as  the  participle  of  this  verb  ; 

Greafc,  tliat's/zw<.n'<?« 

From  the  murthercr's  gibbet,  throw.'  3Macb,eth« 

In  this  form  it  belongs  to  the  third  clafs  of  irregulars. 


50  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Fight,          fought  :  [9!       Feoten,  fuht. 

Teach,        taught  :  Tsechan,         t:ehte. 

Think,        thought:  Thencan,       thohte. 

Seek,  fought  :  Secan,  fohte. 

Work,        wrought:  Weorcan,      worhte. 

Fraught  feems  rather  to  be  an  adjective  than 
the  participle  of  the  verb  to  freight^  which  has 
regular \y  frieghted.  Raught  from  reach  is  cbfolete. 

III. 
Irregulars  in  en. 

The  irregulars  of  the  third  clafs  form  the  pad 
time  by  changing  the  vowel  or  diphthong  of  the 
prefent;  and  the  participle  perfect  and  paffive, 
by.  adding  the  termination  en;  befide,  for  the 
rnoft  part,  the  change  of  the  vowel  or  dipthong. 
Thefe  alfo  derive  their  formation  in  both  parts 
from  the  Saxon. 
Prefcnt.  Pad.  Participle. 

a  changed  into  e. 
Fall,  fell,  fallen. 

a  into          o. 

Awake,  awoke,*  (awaked  ) 

a  into          oo. 

Forfake,  forfook,  forfaken. 

Shake, 

\o]  *  As  in  this  glorious,  and  Vfg}\^f9ugtten&f\d 

We  kept  together  in  our  chivalry.'         Shakefpear,  Hen.  V. 

*  On  the  fouohtsn  field 
Michael,  and  his  Angels,  prevalent. 
Encamping,  plac'din  g'«ard  their  watches  round. e 

Milton,  P.L.  VI.  410, 

This  participle  feems  not  agreeable  to  the  analogy  of  deriva 
tion,  which  obtains  is  this  dais  of  verbs. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Shake, 

{hock. 

fhaken.  [i] 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

aw 

into          <"if. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn.  [2] 

ay 

into           eiv* 

Slay, 

flew, 

flayn.  [_2J 

e 

into            a  or  o$ 

0. 

Get, 

gat,   or  got, 

gotten. 

Help, 

(helped,  '[3] 

holpen.* 

Melt, 

(melted,) 

molten.* 

Swell, 

((welled,) 

fwollcn.* 

fa 

into            a  or  o. 

Eat, 

ate, 

eaten. 

0. 

Bea^ 

bare,          or  bore, 

born. 

Break, 

brake,         or  broke, 

broken. 

Cleave, 

clave,         or  clove,* 

cloven. 

Speak, 

fpake,        or  fpoke, 

fpoken. 

Swear, 

fware,        or  fwore, 

fworn. 

Tear, 

tare,           or  tore, 

torn. 

Wear, 

ware,         or  wore, 

worn. 

Heave, 

hove,* 

hoven.* 

Shear, 

Chore, 

fhorn. 

Steal 

[i  j  '  A  fly  and  conflant  knave,  not  to  be  flat* J.' 

Shakrfpear,  Cymb, 

'   Wert  thou  fome  ftar,  that  from  the  ruin'd  roof 
Of  Jbak'd  Olympus  by  mifchance  didjl  fail.' 
The  regular  form  of  the  participle  in  thefe  places  is  improper, 

fa]  When  en  follows  a  vowel  or  liquid  the  t  is  dropped  :  So 
drawrtijlayn,  (or  Jlain)  are  inftcad  of  draiven,  Jlaysn  ;  fo  likewii'c 
knoivn,  lorn^  are  for  knoivcn,  boien,  in  the  baxon  cnaiL-en  bar  en  : 
and  fo  of  the  reft. 

[3]  The  ancient  irregular  form  holpe  is  flill  ufed  in  converfu- 
tion, 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Steal,         ftole, 
Tread,        trode, 
Weave,      wove, 

ee    into     o 
Creep,        crope,* 
Freeze,       froze, 
Seethe,       fod, 
ee    into    aw. 
See  faw, 

i  long  into  /  fhorr, 
Bite,  bit, 

Chide,        chid, 
Hide,          hid, 
Slide,          ilid, 

i  long  into  0, 
Abide,        abode. 


Climb, 

clomb, 

Drive, 

drove, 

Ride, 

rode, 

Rife, 

rofe,  [4] 

Shine, 

{hone,* 

Shrive, 

fhrcve. 

Smite, 

fmote, 

Stride, 

ftrode, 

Strive, 

drove, 

ftolen  or  itoln. 

troden. 

woven. 

o. 

[creeped  or  crept.) 
frozen, 
fodden. 

feen. 
/  fliort. 

bitten. 

chidden. 

hidden. 

Hidden. 
;  fhort. 

(climbed.) 

driven. 

ridden. 

rifen. 

(fhined.) 

fliriven. 

fmitten. 

ftridden, 

ftriden.* 

Thrive, 


[^1  Rife  with  *  fhort,  Kat'i  been  improperly  ufed  as  the  paft 
time  of  this  verb,  '  That  form  of  the  firil  or  primigenial  earth, 
which  rife  immediaft iy  ovt  of  cliaon.  \vas  ]iot  the  fame,  nor  like 
to  that  of  the  preftnc  earth.'  Burnet's  Theory  of  the  E'^rth, 
B.  I.  eh  rip.  4.  '  if  wr  hold  fa  ft  to  tl-at  fcripture  conclufior.,  lh>.t 
all  mankind  rife  from  one  head.'  JbiU.  53.  II.  chaf.  7. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  53 

Thrive,      throve,  [5]  thriven. 

Write,  [6]  wrote,  written. 

i  long  into  u,  i  fhort. 

Strike,        ftruck,  flricken,  or  itrucken, 

i  (hort  into  a. 

Bid,            bade,  bidden. 

Give,         gave,  given. 

Sit,  [7]       fat,  fitten. 

Spit,           fpat,  fpitten. 
i  ihort  into  it. 


F  2 

[5]  Mr.  Pope  has  ufed  the  regular  form  of  the  pp.ft  time  of 
this  verb  : 

'  In  the  fat  age  of  plcafure,  wealth,  and  cafe, 
Sprung  the  rank  weed,  and  li^r/Wwitj)  large  increafe.' 

Eflay  onCritt. 

[6]  This  verb  is  alfo  formed  like  thofe  of  /long  into  /  fhort  ; 
Write,  writ,  written  ;  and  by  contraction  writ  in  the  participle  ; 
but,  I  think  improperly. 

[7]  Frequent  mifbkes  are  made  in  the  formation  of  the  parti 
ciple  of  this  verb.  The  analogy  plainly  requires  fitten  ;  which 
was  formerly  in  ufe  :  '  The  army  havingjftfefl  there  ib  lon^.'—  - 
*  Which  was  enough  to  make  him  ftir,  that  would  not  haveyh'.v/z 
ftill,  though  Hannibal  had  been  quiet.'  Raleigh.  <  That  no 
parliament  ihould  be  diffolved,  till  it  had  fit  ten  five  months/ 
Hobbes,  Hift.  of  Civil  Wars,  p.  257.  But  it  is  now  aiMoil 
wholly  difufed,  the  ferm  of  the  paft  time  fat,  having  taken  its 
place.  '  The  court  -was  fat,  before  Sir  Roger  came,'  Addifcn, 
Specft.  No.  122.  Dr.  Middleton  hath,  with  great  propriety, 
reftored  the  true  participle  :  —  '  To  havey/^a  on  the  heads  of  the 
apoftles  :—  to  have  fitttn  upon  each  of  them/  Works,  vol.  ii. 
p.  ,30.  '  Bieffed  is  the  man,  —  that  hath  nut  fat  in  the  feat  of  the 
fcornful.'  Pfal.  i,  I.  The  old  editions  hzvejli  ;  v.luch  may  be 
perhaps  allowed  as  a  contraction  of  fitten,  '  .And  when  he  was 
fet,  his  difciples  can:e  unto  him.'  Matth.  v.  I.  —  '  who  is/f/  on 
the  right  hand,'  —  '  and  is^  down  at  the  right  hand  of  the 
throne  of  God/  Heb.  viii,  i,  and  xii.  a.  (fee  alfo  Matth.  xxvii. 
19,  Luke  xxii.  55.  John  xiii.  l^  Rev.  iii.  21  )  Stt  can  be  no 
part  of  the  verb  to  fit.  If  it  belong  to  the  verb  to  fct,  the  tr-anHa- 
tion  in  thefe  paffages  is  wrong  :  I'M  to  fat,  fignifies  to  p'ace,  but 
without  any  defignation  of  the  pofture  of  the  fK.rfun  phufd* 
which  is  a  Ciicuttiflance  of  importance,  c:;^rt!Tcd  by  the  original. 


54 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Dig,  dug,* 

ie     into     ay, 
Lie,  [8]      lay, 

o    into    e. 
Hold          held, 

o    into    7. 
Do  did, 

oo     into     #. 
Choofe,    chofe, 

oiv  into  ^w. 
Blow,  blew, 
Crow,  crew, 
Grow,  grew, 
Knew,  knew, 
Throw,  threw, 

y     into     eiv, 
Fly,  [9]      flew, 


(digged.) 

lien,  or  lain. 

holden. 

done,  i.  e.  doe». 

chofen. 

blown. 

(crowed.) 

grown. 

known. 

thrown. 

civ. 
flown,  [j] 

The 


[8]  This  neuter  verb  Is  frequently  confounded  with  the  verb 
.*&ivctofay  (that  is,  to  put  or  place  ;)  which  is  regular,  and  has 
in  the  paft  time  and  participle  layed  or  laid. 

4  For  him,  thro'  hofUJe  camps  I  bent  my  way, 
For  him,  thus  proftrate  at  thy  feet  I  lay  ; 
Large  gifts  proportioned  to  thy  wrath  I  bear.' 

Pope,  Iliad  xxiv.   622. 
Here  lay  is  evidently  ufed  for  the  prefent  time,  inftead  of  lie. 

[9]  That  is,  as  a  bird,  vo!ere\  whereas  to  fee  fignifies/j/f«r, 
as  from  an  enemy.  So  in  the  Saxon  and  German,  feogan,  fiegen, 
velare  ;  fton,  flcben,  fitgere.  This  feenis  to  be  the  proper  diflinc- 
tion  between  tofy  and  tofet ;  which  in  the  prefent  time  are  very 
often  confoumded.  Our  tranflation  of  the  Bible,  is  not  quite 
free  from  this  miftake.  It  hath  fee  for  votare,  in  perhaps  feven 
or  eight  plates  out  of  a  great  number  ;  but  never fy  forfugere. 
[i]  *  For  rhyme  in  Greece  or  Rome  was  never  known, 

Till  by  barbarian  deluges  overflown.         Rofcommon,  Effay; 
'  Do  net  the  Nile  and  the  Niger  make  yearly  inundations  in 

our 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  55 

The  following  are  irregular  only  in  the  partici 
ple  ;   and  that  without  changing  the  vowel. 
Bake,  (baked,)  baken.* 

Fold,  (folded,)  f olden.*  [2] 

Grave,  (graved,)  graven.* 

Hew,  (hewed,)  hewen,  orhewn.* 

Lade,  (laded,)  laden. 

Load,  (loaded,)  loaden.* 

Mow,  (mowed,)  mown.* 

Owe,  (owed,  or  ought,)     owen.* 

Rive,  (rived,)  riven. 

Saw,  (fawed,)  fawn.* 

Shave,  ((haved,)  fhaven.* 

Shew,  ((hewed,)  fhewn.* 

or, 

Show,  (fhowed,)  fhown. 

Sow,  (fowed,j  fown.* 

Straw,-ew,  or-ow,   (flrawed,  &c.)   drawn*. 
Wafh,  (waflied,)  wafhen*.  [3] 

Wax,  (waxed,)  waxen*. 

Wreath,  (wreathed,)          wreathen. 

Writhe,  (writhed,)  writhen. 

Some 

our  days,  as  they  have  formerly  done  ?  And  are  not  the  countries 
fo  overflown  flill  ikuate  between  the  tropicks  ?' 

Beatley's  Sermons, 

'  Thus  oft  by  mariners  are  fhown 

Eearl  Godwin's  caftles  overflown.'  Swift, 

Here  the  participle  of  the  irregular  verb,  to  fy,  is  confounded 
with  that  of  the  regular  verb  to  few.  It  ought  to  be  in  all  thefe 
places  overflowed. 

[2]  '  While  they  \xfolden  together  as  thorns.'     Nahum  i.  *o, 
[3]  'With  umvajhen  hands.'    Mark  vii.  z,  51 


56  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Some  verbs,  which  change  *  fhort  into  a  or  uY 
and  i  long  into  ou>  have  dropped  the  termination 
en  in  the  participle. 

/  (hort  into  a  or  */, 

Begin,  began, 

Cling,  clang, 

Drink,  drank, 

Fling,  flung, 

Ring,  rang, 

Shrink,  fhrank, 

Sing,  fang, 

Sink,  fank, 

Sling,  fiang, 

Slink,  flunk, 

Spin,  fpan, 

Spring,  fprang, 

Sting,  ftung, 

Stink,  ftank, 

String,  ftrung, 

Swim,  fwam, 

Swing,  fwang,. 
wrung, 


u. 

begun. 

or  clung,      clung, 
drunk,  or  drunken. 

flung. 

or  rung,     rung, 
or  fhrunk,  (hrunk. 
or  fung,      fung. 
or  funk,      funk, 
or  flung,     Hung. 

flunk. 

or  fpun,       fpun^ 
or  fprung,  fprung. 

ftung. 
or  flunk,    ftunk. 

ftrung. 
or  fwum,  fwum. 

fwung. 
wrung. 


Wring, 

In  many  of  the  foregoing,  the  original  and  ana 
logical  form  of  the  paft  time  in  a,  which  diftin- 
guiiheth  it  from  the  participle,  is  grown  quite 
obfolete. 

i  long  into  ou,  ou. 

Bind,  bound,  bound  or  bounden-. 

Find,  found^  found. 

Grind^ 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  57 

Grind,  ground,  ground. 

Wind,  wound,  wound. 

That  all  thefe  had  originally  the  termination  en 
in  the  participle,  is  plain  from  the  following  con- 
fiderations.  Drink  and  bind  flill  retain  it ;  drun 
ken,  bounden ;  from  the  Saxon,  druncen,  bunden  : 
and  the  reft  are  manifeilly  of  the  fame  analogy 
with  thefe.  Begonnen,  /?«£<?;;,  and  foundeny  are 
ufed  by  Chaucer  ;  and  fome  others  of  them  appear 
in  their  proper  fhape  in  the  Saxon  ;  fcruncen,  fpun- 
nerj)  fprttngen^  Jlungen^  wander^  as  likewife  in  the 
German,  which  is  only  another  offspring  of  the 
Saxon :  begunnen,  geklungen,  getrunken,  gefungen^ 
gefunkeH)  gefpvnnen,  gefpnmgen^  gejlnnckeny  gefcl- 
•wummen,  gefchivungen. 

Tl»c  following  feem  to  have  loft  the  en  of  the 
participle  in  the  fame  manner. 

Hang,  [V]  hung,*  hung.* 

Shoot,  mot,  fhot. 

Stick,  ftuck,  ftuck. 

Come,  came,  corne. 

Run,  ran,  run. 

Win,  won,  won. 

Hangent  and  fcoten^  are  the  Saxon  originals  of 
the  two  firft  participles ;  the  latter  of  which  is 

likewife 

[4]  This  verb,  when  a&ive,  may  perhaps  be  moft  properly 
ufed  in  the  regular  form  ;  when  neuter,  in  the  irregular.  But 
in  the  aclive  fenfe  of  furnifmng  a  room  ivitb  draperies  the  irregular 
form  prevails.  The  vulgar  tranflation  of  the  Bible  ufespnly  the 
regular  form. 


58  INTRODUCTION  TO 

likewife  ft  ill  in  ufe  in  its  firft  form  in  one  phrafe  : 
a  flatten  herring.  Stuck  fcems  to  be  a  contrac 
tion  ftomjtuckeui  isjlrpck  now  in  ufe-for^rvr&w. 
Chaucer  hath  comen  and  wontien  :  becomwen  ib  even 
ufed  by  Lord  Bacon.  [5]  And  moft  of  them  ftill 
fubfift  entire  in  the  German  5  gekangen,  kotnmen^ 
gerunneri)  geivonnen, 

To  this  third  clafs  belong  the  defective  verbs, 
be,  been  ;  and  go,  gone  ;  /.  e.  goen. 

From  this  diflribution  and  account  of  the  irre 
gular  verbs,  if  itbe  juft,  it  appears  that  originally 
there  was  no  exception  from  the  rule,  that  the. 
participle  preterit,  or  paflive,  in  Englifn  ends  in 
</,  /,  or  n.  The  firft  form  included  all  the  regu 
lar  verbs  :  and  thofe,  which  are  become  irregular 
by  contraction,  ending  in  t,  To  the  fecond  pio- 
perly  belonged  only  thofe,  which  end  in  ght,  from 
the  Saxon  irregulars  in  hte.  To  the  third,  thofe 
from  the  Saxon  irregulars  in  en ;  which  have  iliilj 
or  had  originally  the  fame  termination, 

The  fame  rule  affords  a  proper  foundation  for 
a  divifionof  all  the  Englifli  verbs  into  three  conju 
gations  ,  or  claries  of  verbs,  diftinguifhed  one  frcrn 
another,  by  a  peculiar  formation,  in  fome  princi 
pal  part  of  the  verbs  belonging  to  each  ;  of  which 
conjugations  refpecHvely,  the  three  different  ter 
minations  of  the  participle  might  be  the  chara&er- 
iftics.  Such  of  the  contracted  verbs  as  have  their 
participles  now  ending  in  /r  might  perhaps  be  befl 

reduced 

[5]  Eflay  xxix. 


59  INTRODUCTION  TO 

reduced  to  the  firft  conjugation,  to  which  they 
naturally  and  originally  belonged  ;  and  they  feem 
to  be  of  a  very  different  analogy  from  thofe  in  ght. 
'But  as  the  verbs  of  the  firft  conjugation  would  fo 
greatly  exceed  in  number  thofe  of  both  the  others, 
which  together  make  but  about  1165  [6]  and  as 
thofe  of  the  third  conjugation  are  fo  various  in 
their  form,  and  incapable  of  being  reduced  to  one 
plain  rule;  it  feems  better  in  pra&ice  to  confider 
the  firft  edas  the  only  regular  form,  and  the  others 
as  deviations  from  it  -,  after  the  example  of  the 
Saxon  and  German  Grammarians. 

To  the  irregular  Verbs  are  to  be  added  the  de 
fective  ;  which  are  not  only  for  the  mod  part 
irregular,  but  are  alfo  wanting  in  fome  of  their 
parts.  They  are  in  general  words  of  moft  fre 
quent  and  vulgar  ufe  ;  in  which  cuftom  is  apt  to 
get  the  better  of  analogy.  Such  are  the  auxiliary- 
verbs,  moft  of  which  are  of  this  number.  They 
are  in  ufe  only  in  fome  of  their  times  and  modes  •, 
and  in  fome  of  them  are  a  compofition  of  times 
of  feveral  defective  verbs,  having  the  fame  figni- 
fication. 

Prefent.  Paft.  Participle, 

Am,  was,  been. 

Can,  could.  Go, 

[6]  The  whole  number  of  verbs  in  the  Englifli  language  regu 
lar  and  irregular,  fimple  and  compounded,  talcen  together,  in 
about  4300.  See,  in  Dr.  Ward's  Effays  on  the  Englilh  language, 
the  catalogue  of  Englifli  verbs.  The  whole  number  of  irregular 
verbs,  the  defective  included,  is  about  176, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  60 

Go,  went,  gone. 

May,  might. 

Muft. 

Quoth,  quoth. 

Shall,  fliould. 

Weet,  wit,  or  wot ;   wot. 

Will,  would. 

Wis,  wift. 

There  are  not  in  Engliih  fo  many  as  a  hundred 
verbs,  (being  only  the  chief  part,  but  not  all,  of 
the  irregulars  of  the  third  clafs)  which  have  a  dif* 
tin&  and  different  form  for  the  paft  time  active 
and  the  participle  perfect  or  paflive.  The  general 
bent  and  turn  of  the  language  is  towards  the  other 
form  ;  which  make  the  paft  time  and  the  partici 
ple  the  fame.  This  general  inclination  and  ten 
dency  of  the  language  feems  to  have  given  occa- 
fion  to  the  introducing  of  a  very  great  corruption: 
by  which  the  form  of  the  paft  time  is  confounded 
with  that  of  the  participle  in  thefe  verbs,  few  in 
proportion,  which  have  them  quite  different  from 
one  another.  This  confufion  prevails  greatly  in 
common  difcourfe,  and  is  too  much  authorized 
by  the  example  of  fome  of  our  bell  writers.  [7] 

Thus 

[7]          "   He  would  baveffole"  Milton,   P.   L.  X.  517. 

**  Words  interwove  with  fighs  found  out  their  way.  P.  L.  i.  621. 
*«  Thofe  kings  and  potentates  who  bav/iJJrove.  Eiconoclaft.  xvii. 
"  Anu  to  his  faithful  fervant  bail  in  place 

J5cr:  vvitnefs  glcricufly."  Samfon  Ag.  ver.  1752. 

*'  And  envious  darknefs,  'ere  they  could  return, 
Had  Bole  them  from  me."  Comus,  vcr.  19^. 

Here 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  61 

Thus  it  is  fa  id,  He  begun  t  for  be  began;  he  run,  for 

he  ran ;   be  drunk,    for  he  drank :   the   participle 

G  being 

Here  it  is  obfervable,  that  the  author's  MS.  and  the  firft  edition 
have  itjlolne. 

*«  And  in  triumph  lad  rode.**  P.  R.  »»•  3°- 

"   I  Aaw  <r<6c/~* 

This  perfect  man."  P.  R.  *•  165. 

"  The  fragrant  brier  was  ivcvt  between.'' 

Dryden,  Fables. 
"  I  will  fcarce  think  you  laviftvam  in  a  Gondola." 

Shakefpear,  As  youlike  it. 
<c  Then  finifh  vrhat  you  have  began t 
But  fcribble  fafUr,  it' you  can.1' 

Dryden,  Poems,  Vol.  II.  p.  iJ2. 
"  And  now  the  years  a  numerous  train  have  ran  ; 
The  blooming  hoy  isripen'd  into  man."  Pope's  OdyfT.  xi-555* 
"  Have /prang**  Atterbury,  Serm.  i.  4. 

"  Had  folks b»dbegaa" Clarendon,  Contin.  Hift.  p.  40. 

and  120.  "  The  men  begun  to  embclhihthemfelves  ''  Addilbn. 
Spedl.  No.  434. 

"  Rapt  into  future  times  the  hard  begun"       Pope,  Meffiah. 
And,  without  the  necefllty  of  rhyme  : 

"  A  fecond  delujife  learning  thus  o'er -run, 

And  the  Monks  iinifh'd  what  the  Goth's  begun." 

EflTay  onCriticiiin. 

"  Repeats  you  vcrfes  wrote  on  glafles."  Prior. 

"  Mr.  Miffon  has  wrote."  Addilbn,  Preface  to  his  Travels. 
"  Ht  could  only  command  his  voice,  which  was  broke  with  fighi; 
and  lobbings,  iofuras  to  bid  her  proceed." 

Addifon,  Specl.  No.  164. 
<{  No  civil  broils  have  fince  his  death  arofc-." 

Dryden,  on  O.  Cromwell, 

"   Illuftrious  virtue,  who  b'y  turns  have  rofc."  Prior. 

"  Had  not  arc/?."  Swift,  Battle  of  Books ;  and  Eolingbroke, 
Letter  to  Wyndham.  p.  233. 

"  The  fun  has  roset  and  gone  to  bed, 

Juft  as  if  Partridge  were  not  dead.'*  Swifr. 

x. 


"  This  nimble  operator  will  havejlole  it."   Tale  of  a  Tub,  Sccl. 

'*  Some  philofophers£</i;<?  mi/lcol."     Ibid.   Se£t.  ix. 
<c  That  Diodorus/?w  not  mtfltok biatjelf  in  his  account  of  the  cL 
of  Phintia,  we  may   be   as  lure  as  any   hiflory  can  make  us.'' 
Bentley,  Differt.  on  Phalaris,  p.  98. 

"  Why,  all  the  fouls  that  were,  were  forfeit  once  ; 

And 


62  INTRODUCTION  TO 

being  ufed  inftead  of  the  paft  time.      And  much 
more  frequently  the  pad  time  inftead  of  the  par 
ticiple  :   as,    /  had  wrote,   it  ivas  wrote,   for  /  had 
•written,   it  was  written  ;    I  have  drank,  for  /  have 
drunk ;   lore,   for  born ;   chofe,   for  chofe  n ;   lid  for 
bidden ;  got  for  gotten,    bV.     This  abufe  has  been 
long  growing  upon  us,   and  is  continually  making 
further  incroachments ;   as  it  may  be  obferved  in 
the  example  of  thofe   irregular  verbs  of  the  third 
clafs,  which  change  /  (liort  into  a  and  // :  as,  Cling, 
clang,   clung ;   in  which  the  original  and  analogi 
cal  form  of  the  pail  time  in  a  is  almoft  grown  ob- 
folete;   and,   the  u  prevailing  inftead  of  it,    the 
paft  time  is  now  in  the  moft  of  them  confounded 
with  the   participle.      The   vulgar   tranflation   of 
the  Bible,  which  is  the  beft  ftandard  of  our  Ian- 
gauge,  is  free  from  this  corruption,   except  in  a 
few  inftances  ;   as  hid  is  ufed  for  hidden  ;   held  for 
holden,  frequently  ;   bid,   for  bidden  /   begot,  for  be 
gotten,  once  or  twice  :  in  which,   and  a  few  other 
like  words,   it  may  perhaps  be  allowed  as  a  con 
traction.    And  in  fome  of  thefe,  cuftom  has  eftab- 

liilied 

Am!  He,  that  might  the  'vantage  heft  have  took, 

Found  out  the  remedy.''  blialvCi]>car,  Meal',  for  Meaf. 

"  Silence 

Was  took  eve  fhe  was  ware."  Milton,  Conuis. 

*  Into  thefe  common  places  look, 

"Which  from  great  authors  I  Lave  twk  '  Prior,  .Alma. 

*  A  free  conftitution,  when    it  has  been  J^Jiof:  by  the  iniquity  oi 
former  adminiilrations  '     Bolingbroke,   Patriot  King,  p,   in. 
'  Too  ftrong  to  bcfoook  by  iiis  enemies.'     Atterbury. 

'*  Ev'n  there  he  fhou'd  lave  f til S*  Prior,  Solomon. 

"  Sure  fome  difafter  Las  befell . 

Speak,  Nurfe;   1  hope  the  Boy  is  well."  Cay,  Fa!-:!cs. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  63 

lifhed  it  beyond  recovery  :  in  the  reft  it  feems 
wholly  inexcufable.  The  abfardity  of  it  will  be 
plainly  perceived  in  the  example  of  fome  of  thefe 
verbs>  whfth  cuftom  has  not  yet  fo  perverted. 
We  mould  be  immediately  (hocked  at  Iba-veknewy 
I  have  faiu,  I  have  gave,  &c.  but  our  ears  arc 
grown  familiar  with  /  have  wrote,  I  have  drank y 
I  have  bore,  &c.  which  are  altogether  as  barbarous. 
There  are  one  or  two  final  1  irregularities  to  be 
noted,  to  which  fome  verbs  are  fubje£l  in  the  for 
mation  of  the  prefent  participle.  The  prefent: 
participle  is  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  verb  :  as 
turn,  turning.  Verbs  ending  in  e  omit  the  e  in. 
the  prefent  participle :  as,  love,  loving.  Verbs 
ending  with  a  fingle  confonant  preceded  by  a  fingle 
vowel,  and,  if  of  more  than  one  fy liable,  having 
the  accent  in  the  laft  fyllable,  double  the  confo- 
zmnt  in  the  prefent  participle,  as  well  as  in  every 
other  part  of  the  verb  in  which  a  fyllable  is  added : 
as,  put,  putting,  putteth ;  forget,  forgetting,  for- 
getteth-,  abbety  abetting,  abetted.  [8] 


ADVERB. 

ADVERBS   are    added  to   Verbs,   and  to  Ad- 
je&ives,    to  denote  fome  modification  or 

circum  fiance 

[8]  Some  verbs  haying  the  accent  on  the  lad  fyllable  but  one, 
as,  tvorjbijj,  counfd,  are  roprefentcd  in  like  manner,  as  doublino- 
the  laft  confonant  in  the  formation  of  ihofe  parts  of  the  verb,  in 
which  a  fyllable  is  added  ;  as,  tunr/hi pping  counjMing.  But  this  I 
r-acher  judge  to  be  a  fa«lt  in  tlie  fpciiing,  which  ncicher 
npr  pronunciation  juftifies. 


64  INTRODUCTION  TO 

circumftance  of  an  aftion,  or  quality:  as,  the 
manner,  order,  time,  place,  diftance,  motion,  re 
lation,  quantity,  quality,  comparifon,  doubt,  af 
firmation,  negation,  demonstration,  interrogation. 

In  English  they  admit  of  no  variation  ;  except 
fome  few  of  them,  which  have  the  degrees  of 
comparifon:  as,  [9]  "often,  oftener,  oftencfl ;" 
"  foon,  fooner,  foonefl  j"  and  thofe  irregulars, 
derived  from  adjeftives  [i]  in  this  refpect  like- 
wife  irregulars  "well,  better,  beft  ;"  &c. 

An  adverb  is  fometimes  joined  to  another  ad 
verb,  to  modify  or  qualify  its  meaning  ;  as,  "  very 
;  much  too  little  ;  not  very  prudently." 


PREPOSITION. 

REPOSITIONS,  fo  called  becaufe  they  are 
commonly  put  before  the  words  to  which 

they 

[9]  The  formation  of  adverbs  in  general  with  the  comparative 


"  Was  ihe  tofdicr  pcrfuadcd,1'  Raleigh.  "  ri"liat  he  may  the 
;1)-(ii:?li*r  provide."  Hobbes,  Life  ot  Thueyd.  "  The  things 
't'l^li'^jl  important  to  the  growing  a»e.''  Shaftefbiiry,  Letter  to 
.Vioiilvvorrii.  "  Th-s  cptilHon  would  not  be,  who  loved  himiclf, 
?.nd  who  nor ;  but,  who  lovtd  mid  ferved  himfelf  the  righleji^  and 
r.fter  the  trucft  manner."  Id.  Wit  and  Humour.  It  ought  ni- 
t!icr  to  be,  v:oft  hardly,  more  enfi'y,  more jlrcngly ,  mcft  biglJ<fr  r/>ti/i 
*h'jt  or  vibji  rightly.  But  thefe  comparer !vc  adverbs,  however 
improper  in  prcfe,  are  fometimea  allowable  in  poetry. 

'«  Sctpitr  and  pov^'r  Thy  giving,  I  affume; 

And  gljcUicr  ihall  rcfign.'*  Milton,  P.  L  vi.  7j:. 

fi]  Sec  aLcve,  p,  2J. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  65 

they  are  applied,  ferve  to  connect  words  with  one 
another,  and  to  fhew  the  relation  between  them, 

One  great  ufe  of  prepofitions  in  Englifh,  is  to 
exprefs  thofe  relations,  which  in  fome  languages  . 
are  chiefly  marked  by  cafes,   or  the  different  endj 
ings  of  the  noun. 

Mod  prepofitions  originally  denote  the  rela 
tion  of  place,  and  have  been  thence  transferred 
to  denote  by  fimilitude  other  relations.  Thus,  out, 
in  ',  through^  under,  by,  to,  from,  of,  &c.  Of  is 
much  the  fome  withfr^m;  "  afk  c/'me,"  that  is, 
from  me  :  "  made  of  wood  ;"  "  Son  of  Philip  ;" 
that  is,  fprung  from  him.  For,  in  its  primary 
fenfe,  is  pro,  loco  alterius,  in  the  (lead  or  place  of 
another.  The  notion  of  place  is  very  obvious  in 
all  the  reft,  [zj 

G   2  Prepofitions 


[a]  The  particle  a  before  participles,  in  the  pbfafes 
agoing,  a-walluug,  «-fhoofing,  &c.  and  before  noun?,  as<7-lv.d, 
4-  board,  a-ihore,  a-  foot,  &c.  i'ccms  to  be  a  true  yjid  genuine 
preposition,  a.  little  difguifed  by  .faini-Hur  ufe-  and  quick  pronun 
ciation,  Dr.,  Wullis  fuppofes  it  to  be  the  proportion  at.  I  rather 
think  it  is  the  prepofuion  on  ;  the  ferife  of  which  anfvvers  better 
to  the  intention  of  thofe  expreffions.  At  .has  relation  cliieily  to 
place:  on  has.  a  .more  general  relation,  and  may  be  applied  to 
attion,  and  many  other  things,  as  well  as  pines.  ki  I  wits  on  com 
ing,  on  going,"  &c.  that  is,  employed  upon  that  particular  aftion  : 
fo.  likewife  thofe  other  phrafes  above  mentioned,  «-bcd,  &c. 
exailiy  anfwer  to  on  be<l,  on  board,  on  fhore,  on  foot.  Dr.  Bent- 
ley  plainly  fuppofed  a  to  be  the  fame  with  on  ;  as  r.ppsars  from 
the  following  p-aflage  :  "  He  would  have  a  learned  Univerfity 
make  Barbariuns  a  purpcfe."  Dillert.  on  Phalaris,  p.  --23. 
And  the  prepofition  on  has  manifeftly  deviated  into  a  in  other  in- 
ftances:  Thus  the  Saxon  compounded  prepoiltions  a«geao,  on- 
mang,  owbutan,  are  become  in  Englifh,  by  the  rapkliry  of  pro 
nunciation,  flgainft,  ^rnong,  about;  and  what  is  in  the  Saxon 
Gofpel>  "  k  wyllc  gan  oo.  fixotb,."  is  in  the  Ecgliih  tranfhtion, 

«  j 


66  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Prepofitkms  are  alfo  prefixed  to  words  in  fuch 
manner,  as  to  coalefce  with  them,  and  to  become 
a  part  of  them.  Prepofitions,  {landing  by  them- 
felves  in  conftrucUon,  are  put  before  nouns  and 
pronouns  ;  and  fometimes  after  verbs;  but  in  this 
fort  of  competition  they  are  chiefly  prefixed  to 
verbs :  as,  to  cutgo,  to  overcome,  to  undervalue* 
There  are  alfo  certain  particles,  which  are  thus 
employed  in  compofition  of  words,  yet  cannot 
Hand  by  themfelves  in  conftruclion  :  as,  a,  be, 
can,  mis,  £c.  in  abide,  bedeck,  conjoin,  miflake, 
&c.  thefe  are  called  infeparable  prepofitions. 


CONJUNCTION. 

THE   Conjunction  connedls  or  joins   together 
fentences  j    fo   as,    out    of   two,    to   make 
one  fentence. 

Thus,  "  You,  and  I5  and  Peter,  rode  to  Lon 
don,"  is  one  fentence,  made  up  of  thefe  three  by 
the  conjunction  and  twice  employed  j  "  You  rode 
to  London  ;  I  rode  to  London  ;  Peter  rode  to 
London."  Again,  "  You  and  I  rode  to  London, 

but 

"  I  go  a  fiflik.[,.''  John,  xxi.  3.  Much  in  the  fame  manner, 
Thomas  of  Becker,  by  very  frtqucn:  and  familiar  ufe,  became 
Thoma.-,  a  £cckct ;  :;nd  one  of  the  circle,  or  perhaps  on  the  clock 
is  written^  unt  o'clock,  but  pronounced,  one  a  clock.  The 
phrafv.s  with  .7  before  a  participle  are  out  of  ufe  in  the fbkmn 
fly]'- :  bu:-  (Hll  prevail  in  familiar cifcourfe.  They  are  eftablifhcd 
by  long  ufage,  and  gcod  authoiity  :  ard  there  feeaia  to  be  no 
leafon,  >vhy  they  fliould  be  utterly  rejodted. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  67 

but  Peter  (laid  at  home,"  is  one  fcntence  made  up 
of  three  by  the  Conjunctions  and  and  but;  both 
of  which  equally  connect  the  fentences,  but  the 
latter  expreffes  an  oppofition  in  the  fenfe.  The 
fir  ft  is  therefore  called  a  conjunction  copulative  ; 
the  other  a  conjunction  disjunctive. 

The  ufe  of  copulative  conjunctions  is  to  con 
nect,  or  to  continue,  the  fentence,  by  exprefling 
an  addition,  and ;  a  fuppofition  or  condition,  if, 
as ;  a  caufe,  beccutfe,  [3]  then ;  a  motive  that ;  an 
inference,  therefor;  &c. 

The  ufe  of  disjunctives  is  to  connect  and  to 
continue  the  fentence  j  but  withal  to  -exprefs  op- 
pofition  of  meaning  in  different  degrees :  as,  or, 
bitty  the/i,  altho\  unlefs^  &c. 


INTERJECTION. 

INTERJECTION,  fo  called,  becaufe  they  are 
thrown  in  between  the  parts  of  a  fentence  with- 
out  making  any  other  alteration  in  it,   are  a  kind 
of  natural   founds  to  exprefs  the  affection  of  the 
fpeaker. 

The  different  paffions  have,  for  the  mod  part, 
different  interjections  to  exprefs  them. 

The 

[3]  The  conjunction  bccaufe,  ufcd  to  exprefs  the  motive  or  end, 
in  either  improper  or  obfolete  :  as,  '  The  multitude  rebuked 
them,  lecaitfn  they  fhould  hold  their  peace.'  Matt.  xx.  31.  'It 
is  the  cafe  of  fome,  to  contrive  falfe  periods  of  bufineis,  becatife 
they  may  feem  men  of  difpatch.'  Bacon,  Efiay  xxv.  We 
fhould  now  make  uie  of  that. 


68  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  interje&ion  O,  placed  before  a  fubftantive,, 
exprefles  more  ilrongly  an  addrefs  made  to  that 
perfon  or  thing  -3  as  it  marks  in  Latin  what  is 
called  the  vocative  cafe. 


SENTENCES. 

A  SENTENCE  is  an  aflemblage  of  words, 
expreffcd  in  proper  form,  and  ranged  in 
proper  order,  and  concurring  to  make  a  complete 
fenfe. 

The  conft ruction  of  fentences  depends  princi 
pally  upon  the  concord  or  agreement,  and  the 
regimen  or  government  of  words. 

One  word  is  faid  to  agree  with  another,  when. 
It  is  required  to  be  in  like  cafe,  number,  gender, 
or  perfon. 

One  v/ord  is  faid  to  govern  another,  when  it 
caufeth  the  other  to  be  in  fome  cafe  or  mode. 

Sentences  are  either  fimple  cr  compounded. 

A  fimpJe  fentence  hath  in  it  but  one  fubjecl:, 
and  one  finite  verb;  that  is,  a  verb  in  the  indi 
cative,  imperative,  or  fubjunclive  mode. 

A  phrafe  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  to 
gether,  in  order  to  make  a  part  of  a  fentence;  and 
fometimes  making  a  whole  fentence. 

The  mod  common  PHRASES  ufed  in  fimple 
fentencesj  are  the  following.. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  69 

I  ft  Phrafe:  The  fubftantive  before  a  verb  ac 
tive,  pailive,  or  neuter  ;  when  it  is  faid  what 
thing  /'/,  dass,  or  is  done  ;  "  as  I  am  ;"  "  Thou 
writeft  -,"  "  Thomas  is  loved  :"  where  I,  Thou, 
Thomas,  are  the  nominative  [4]  cafes,  and  anfwer 
to  the  queftion  who,  or  what  ?  as,  "  Who  is 
loved  ?  Thomas."  And  the  verb  agrees  with  the 
nominative  cafe  in  number  and  perfon[5_];  as, 
Thou  being  the  fecond  perfon  fingular,  the  verb 
writeft  is  fo  too. 


[4]   '  Scotland  and  7^  did  each  in  other  live.' 

Dryden,  Poems,  Vol.  II,  p.  22O. 
'  We  are  alone  ;  here's  none,  but  Thee  and  1.' 

Shakefpear,  2.  Hen.  VI. 

It  o-ught  in  both  places  to  be  T/JOU  ;  the  nominative  cafe  to  the 
verb  exprefled  or  underftood. 

[5]  *  But  Thou,  falfe  Arcite,  never/*?//  obtain 

Thy  bad  pretence.'  Dryden,  Fables. 

It  ought  to  be,  Jialt.  The  miftake  feems  to  arife  from  the  con 
founding  of  T/>o«and  Tou,  as  equivalent  in  every  refpect  ;  where 
as  one  is  fmgular,  the  other  plural.  See  above,  p.  50. 

*  Nor  tbouj  ihztjlixgs  me  floundering  from  thy  back.' 

Parnel,  Battle  of  Frogs  and  Mice,  I.  123. 

*  There's  (there  are}  tiuo  or  three  of  us  have  feen  ftrange  fights. 

Shakeipear,  Jul.  Csf. 

*  Grt&t  pain;  has  (have)  been  taken.  Pope,  P.  S  to  the  Odyffey. 
'  1  have  confidcrcd,  what  ba  -js  (  hath  )  been  faid  on  both  tides  iia 
this  controverfey.  Tiliotfon,  Vol.  I.  Serin.  27. 

*  One  would  think,  there  was  more   Sopkifts  than  one  had  a 
finger  in  this  Volume  of  Letters.'      Bentiey,  Diflert.  on  So- 
crates's  EpiflL\s,  Sedl.  ix. 

'  The  m:mber  of  the  names  together  ivere  about  an  hundred 
and  twenty.'  Acl:s,  i.  15.  See  alib  Job,  xiv.  5. 

'  And  Rebekah  took  goodly  raiment  of  her  eldeft  fon  Efau, 
ivbicb  ivere  with  her  in  the  houfe,  and  put  them  upon  Jacob  her 
youngeft  fon.'  Gen  xxvii.  15. 

'  If  the  blood  of  bulls  and  of  goats,  and  the  afots  of  an  heifer, 
fprinkling  the  unclean,  faK&lfiejk  to  the  purifying  of  the  flefh.' 
lieb.  ix.  13.  See  alfo  Exod.  ix.  8,  9,  10.  '  la  one  hour  fo 
great  ric&etts  come  to  nought.'  Rev.  xviii,  17. 


70  INTRODUCTION  TO 

2d  Phrafe  :  The  fubftantive  after  a  verb  neufer 
or  pafTive ;  when  it  is  laid,  that  fuch  a  thing  is, 
or  is  rnade>  or  thought  y  o-r  called >  fuch  another 
thing ;  or,  when  the  fubftantive  after  the  verb  is 
fpoken  of  the  fame  thing  or  perfon  with  the  fub 
ftantive  before  the  verb  :  as,  "  a  calf  becomes  an 
ox  ;"  "  Plautus  is  accounted  a  Poet ;"  "  I  am  He." 
Here  the  latter  fubftantive  is  in  the  nominative 
cafe,  as  well  as  the  former  j  and  the  verb  is  faid 
to  govern  the  nominative  cafe :  or,  the  latter  fub 
ftantive  may  be  faid  to  agree  in  cafe  with  the 
former. 

3d  Phrafe :.  The  adjective  after  a  verb  neuter 
or  paffive,  in  like  manner  :  as,  "  Life  isftort,  and 
Art  is  long"  "  Exercife  is  efleemed  ivholefome" 

4th  Phrafe  :  The  fubftantive  after  a  verb  ac 
tive,  or  tranfitive :  as  when  one  thing  is  faid  to 
aft  upon,  or  dv  fomething  to  another :  as,  "to 
open  a  door  ;"  "  to  build  a  houfe  :"  u  Alexander 
conquered  the  Pen'ians."  Here  the  thing  acled 
upon  is  in  the  objective  [6]  cafe ;  as,  it  appears 

plainly 

[6]  «  For  tvlo  love  I  fo  much  ?'  Shakefpear,  Merch.  of  Venice. 
*   Who  eer  I  woo,  myfelf  v/ould  he  his  wife,'     Id.  Twelfth  Night. 
*   Wlwer  the  King  faiors, 

The  Card;n  »I  will  find  employment  for, 

And  far  enough  from  court.'  ^    Hen'  VIII. 

Tell  who  hves  tula  ,•  what  favors  fome  partake, 

Thofe  tvf:o  he  thwgkt  true  to  hi?  party  '  Clarendon,   Hift. 

And  who  isj;Ue>i  for  another's  fake.'  Drydcn,  Juvenal.  Sac  vi. 
Vol.  I,  p.  667,  8vo.  '  Wlo  fhculcl  I  meet  the  other  night,  but- 
my  old  friend  ?'  Sped.  No.  32.  *  Who  {hould  }fee  in  the  lid 
of  it,  hut  the  D.^r?'  Adrlifon,  Speft.  No._57.  'Laying 
the  fufpicion  upon  k.mrbody,  I  know  not  who,  in  the  country.' 
Swift,  apology  prefixed  to.  Tale  of  a  Tub.  In  all  thefe.placca 
it  cught  to  be-  ivbtm. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  71 

plainly  when  it  is  exprefled  by  the  pronoun* 
which  has  a  proper  termination  for  that  cafe  ; 
"  Alexander  conquered  them ;"  and  the  verb  is 
faid  to  govern  the  objective  cafe. 

5th  Phrafe  :  A  verb  following  another  verb; 
as,  "  boys  love  to  play  :"  where  the  latter  verb 
is  in  the  infinitive  mode. 

6th  Phrafe  :  When  one  thing  is  faid  to  belong 
to  another  ;  as,  "  Milton's  poems  :"  where  the 
thing  to  which  the  other  belongs  is  placed  firft,  and 
is  in  the  pofleflive  cafe  ;  or  elfe  laft  with  the  pre* 
pofition  of  before  it ;  as,  "  the  poems  of  Milton." 

7th  Phrafe  :  When  another  fubftantive  is  added 
to  exprefs  and  explain  the  former  more  fully  ;  as, 
"Paul  the  Apoftle;"  "  King  George:"  where 
they  are  both  in  the  fame  cafe  ;  and  the  latter  is 
faid  to  be  put  in  oppofition  to  the  former. 

8th  Phrafe  :  When  the  quality  of  the  fubftan 
tive  is  exprefled  by  adding  an  adjective  to  it :  ;;:••, 
"  a  wife  man ;"  "  a  black  horfe."  Participles 
have  the  nature  of  adjectives  ;  as,  <{  a  learned 
man  ;"  "  a  loving  father." 

9th  Phrafe  :  An  adjective  with  a  verb  in  the 
infinitive  mode  following  it :  as,  "  worthy  to  die;" 
"  fit  to  be  trufted." 

loth  Phrafe  :  When  a  circumftanoe  is  added 
to  a  verb,  or  to  an  adjeclive,  by  an  adverb  :  as, 
"  you  read  well  j"  "  he  is  very  prudent." 

nth  Phrafe  :  When  a  circumftance  is  added  to 
a  verb  or  an  adjective  by  a  fubftantive  with  a  pre- 

pofition 


72  INTRODUCTION  TO 

pofition  before  it :  as,  "  I  write  for  you ;"  "  he 
reads  with  care  ;'*  "  ftudious  of  praife  j"  "ready 
for  mifchief." 

1 2th  Phrafe  :  When  the  fame  quality  in  differ 
ent  fubjects  is  compared ;  the  adjective  in  the 
pofitive  having  after  it  the  conjunction  as,  in  the 
comparative  the  conjunction  than,  and  in  the  fu- 
perlative  the  prepofition  of;  as,  "  white  as  fnow  $" 
"  wiferthan  I  j"  "  greateft  of  all." 

The  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  of  a  fimple  fentence  are 
the  agent,  the  attribute,  and  the  object.  The 
agent  is  the  thing  chiefly  fpoken  of ;  the  attribute 
is  the  thing  or  action  affirmed  or  denied  of  it ; 
and  the  objecl:  is  the  thing  affected  by  fuch  action. 

In  Englifli  the  nominative  cafe,  denoting  the 
agent,  ufually  goes  before  the  verb,  or  attribution  ; 
and  the  objective  cafe,  denoting  the  object,  fol 
lows  the  verb  active  ;  and  it  is  the  order,  that 
determines  the  cafes  in  nouns  :  as,  "  Alexander 
conquered  the  Perfians."  But  the  pronoun,  hav 
ing  a  proper  form  for  each  of  thofe  cafes,  fome- 
times,  when  it  is  in  the  objective  cafe,  is  placed 
before  the  verb  ;  and,  when  it  is  in  the  nominative 
cafe,  follows  the  object  and  verb :  as,  "  Whom 
ye  ignorantly  wbrfhip,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 
And  the  nominative  cafe  is  fometimes  placed  after 
a  verb  neuter ;  as,  "  Upon  thy  right  hand  didjrand 
the  ^j/een  :"  "  On  a  fudden  appeared  the  King" 
And  always,  when  the  verb  is  accompanied  with 
the  adverb  there  :  as,  "  There  was  a  wan;" .  The 

reafon 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  7$ 

reafon  of  it  is  plain  :  the  neuter  verb  not  admit 
ting  of  an  objedive  cafe  after  it,  no  ambiguity  of 
cafe  can  arife  from  fuch  a  pofition  of  the  noun  : 
and  where  no  inconvenience  attends  it,  variety 
itfelf  is  pleafmg.  [7] 

Who,  which,  what,  and  the  relative  that,  though 
in  the  objective  cafe,  are  always  placed  before  the 
verb ;  as  are  alfo  their  compounds,  whoever,  who- 
foever,  &c.  as,  "  He  whom  youfeek"  "  This  is 
what,  or  the  thing  which,  or  that,  you  want." 
"  Whomfoever  you  pleafe  to  appoint." 

When  the  verb  is  a  paflive,  the  agent  and  object 
change  places  in  the  fentence  *,  and  the  thing  acted 
upon  is  in  the  nominative  cafe,  and  the  agent  is 
accompanied  with  a  prepofition  :  as,  "  The  Per- 
fians  were  conquered  by  Alexander." 

The  action  expreffed  by  a  neuter  verb  being 
confined  within  the  agent,  fuch  verb  cannot  admit 
of  an  objective  cafe  after  it,  denoting  a  perfon  or 
thing,  as  the  object  of  action.  Whenever  a  noun 
is  immediately  annexed  to  a  preceding  neuter  verb, 
it  exprefles  either  the  fame  notion  with  the  verb ; 
as,  to  dream  a  dream ;  te  live  a  virtuous  life :  or 
H  denotes 

[7]  *  It  muft  then  be  meant  of  his  fins  who  makes,  not  of  his 
who  becomes,  tie  convert.     Atterbury,  Sermons,  I.  ft. 
'  In  him  who  £r,  and  him  wboj&wV,  a  friend.'' 

Pope,  Effay  on  Man. 

*  Eye  bail  notfeen,  nor  ear  beard  neither  have  entered  into  the 
heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that 
love  him.'  I  Cor.  ii,  9. 

There  feems  to  be  an  impropriety  in  thefe  fentences,  in  which 
the  fame  noun  ftands  in  a  double  capacity,  performing  at  the 
fame  time  the  offices  both  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cafe. 


•74  INTRODUCTION  TO 

denotes  only  the  circumftance  of  the  action,  a  pre- 
pofition  being  underftood  ;  as,  tojleep  all  night, 
that  is,  through  all  ihc  night  5  to  'walk  a  mile,  that 
is,  through  the  fpace  of  a  mile. 

For  the  fame  reafon,  a  neuter  verb  cannot 
become  a  paffive.  In  a  neuter  verb,  the  agent 
and  object  are  the  fame,  and  cannot  be  feparated 
.  even  in  imagination  :  as  in  the  examples,  tojleep, 
to  walk  ;  but  when  the  verb  is  paflive,  one  thing 
is  acted  upon  by  another,  really,  or  by  fuppofition 
different  from  it.  [8] 

A  noun  of  multitude,  [9]  or  fignifying  many, 
may  have  the  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it 

either 

[8]  That  fome  neuter  verbs  take  a  pafiive  form,  bait  without 
a  paffive  fignification,  has  been  obierved  above  ;  lee  p.  48.  Here 
1  ipeak  of  their  becoming  both  in  form  and  iignification  paffive  : 
•and  (hall  endeavor  further  to  illuftrate  the  rule  by  example.  To 
fflit,  like  many  other  Englifn  verbs,  hath  both  an  active  and  a 
neuter  fignification  :  According  to  the  former  we  fay,  '  The 
force  of  gunpowder/?;///  lie  tod  .-'  according  to  the  latter,  '  The 
/;V  upon  the  rock  :'  And  converting  the  verb  active  into  a 


pafiive,  we  may  fay,  '  The  rock  iuas  ff/lii  by  the  force  of  gunpow 
der;'  or,  '  Tlejbip  iuas  fplit  upon  the  rock."  But  we  cannot  fay 
\vith  any  propriety,  turning  the  verb  neuter  into  a  paffive  by 
invcrlion  of  the  fentence,  '  'I  he  rod  ivas  fplit  upon  by  the  fhip  ;' 
as  in  the  pafiage  following  :  What  fuccela  thefe  labours  of  mine 
have  had,  he  knows  bell,  for  whofe  glory  they  were  defigned. 
«  It  will  be  one  fure  and  comfortable  (ign  to  me,  that  they  have 
had  fome,  if  it  {hall  appear,  that  the  words  I  have  fpoken  to 
you  to-day,  are  not  in  vain  :  If  they  fliall  prevail  with  you  in 
any  meafure  to  avoid  thofe  rocks  which  are  ufually^///  upon  in 
elections,  where  multitudes  of  different  inclinations,  capacities 
and  judgments,  are  interefted.'  Atterbury,  Sermons,  IV.  iz. 

[9]  *  And  reftore  to  his  ijland,  that  tranquillity  and  repofe,  to 
which  tleyhzA  been  Jlran«ers  during  his  abfence.'  Pope,  difltr- 
tation  prefixed  to  the  Odyfiey.  Ijland  is  not  a  noun  of  multitude  ; 
it  ought  to  be  \\i&  people  ;  or,  //had  been  *jlr  anger*  *  What  rta- 

fon 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  75 

either  in  the  fmgular  or  plural  number  ;  yet  not 
witliout  regard  to  the  import  of  the  word,  as  con 
veying  unity  or  plurality  of  idea  :  as,  "  Myperp/e 
is  fcolifh  j  they  have  not  known  me."  Jer.  iv.  22. 
"  The  affembly  of  the  wicked  have  inclofed  me." 
Pfal.  xxii.  1 6.  perhaps  more  properly  than  "  hath 
enclofed  me."  "  The  ajftmbly  'was  very  nume 
rous  :"  much  more  properly,  than,  "  were  very 
numerous." 

Two  or  more  nouns  in  the  fmgular  number, 
joined  together  by  one  or  more  copulative  con 
junctions,  [i]  have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns, 
agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural  number  :  as, 
**  Socrates  and  Plato  were  wife  j  they  inert,'  the 
mod  .eminent  Philofephers  of  Greece."  But  fomc- 
times,  after  an  enumeration  of  particulars  thus 
connected,  the  verb  follows  in  the  fingular  nunu 
ber  ;  and  is  underflood  as  applied  to  each  of  the 
preceding  terms  :  as,  "  The  glorious  inhabitants 
of  thofe  facred  palaces,  where  nothing  but  light 

and 

fon  la-js  tie  clurcb  of  Rome  to  talk  of  modefty  in  this  cafe  ?' 
Tillotfon,  Serm.  I.  \j.  *  There  is  indeed  no  conJJltution  fo  tame 
and  carelefs  of  tbelr  own  defence,  where  any  perfon  dares  to 
give  the  leaft  fign  or  intimation  of  being  a  traitor  in  heart.' 
Addifon,  Freeholder,  No.  53.  '  All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are 
to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fingers,  but  bh  follies  and  vices  are 
innumerable.'  Swift,  Preface  to  Tale  of  a  Tub.  Is  not  mankind 
in  this  place  a  noun  of  multitude,  and  fuch  as  require  the  pro 
noun  referring  to  it  to  be  in  the  plural  number,  their  ? 

[i]  The  conjunction  disjunctive  hath  a  contrary  cffecl  ;  and, 
as  the  verb,  noun  or  pronoun,  is  referred  to  the  preceding 
terms  taken  feparately,  it  mult  be  in  the  fmgular  number.  The 
following  fcruence  is  faulty  in  this  refped  r  '  A  man  may  fee  a 
metaphor,  r,  an  allegory,  in  a  pi&ure,  as  well  as  read  tlem  (it) 
in  a  deicripiion.'  Addilon,  Dial.  I.  on  Medals. 


76  INTRODUCTION  TO 

and  blefled  immortality,  no  fhadow  of  matter  for 
tears,  difcontentments,  griefs,  and  uncomfortable 
paffions  to  work  upon;  but  allycy,  tranquillity  >  and 
peace,  even  for  ever  and  ever  doth  dwell"  Hooker, 
1).  i.  4.  <J  Sandy  and  fait,  and  a  mafs  of  iron,  is 
eafier  to  bear,  than  a  man  without  underftanding." 
Eeclus.  xxii.  15.  [2] 

If  the  fingulars  fo  joined  together,  are  of  fe- 
veral  perfono,  in  making  the  plural  pronoun  agree 
with  them  in  perfon,  the  fee-on  d  perfon  takes 
place  of  the  third,  jjnd  the  fir II  of  both  :  "  He 
and  yen  and  /won  it,  at  the  hazard  of  our  lives  : 
Ton  and  he  fliared  it  between  you." 

The  neuter  pronoun  /Y,  is  fometimes  employed 
to  exprefs,    I.  the  fubje£t  of  any  difcourfe  or  en 
quiry  :  2.  the  itate  or  condition  of  any  thing  or 
perlbn  ;   3.  the  thing,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  the 
cruifj  of  any  effect  or  event ;  or  any  perfon  confi- 
dered  merely  as  a  caufe,  without  regard  to  proper 
perfonality.      Examples : 
I.   "  'Twas  at  the  royal  feaft  for  Perfia  won 
By  Philip's  godlike  fon."  Dryden. 

//  happen'd  on  a  fummer's  holyday, 
That  to  the  greenwood  ihade,   he  took  his 
-    way."  Ibid. 

"Who 

[l]  «  Andfo  was  alfo  garnet  and-  Join  the  fas  of  Zebedee, 
which  were  partners  with  Simon.'  JLuke_v.  JO.  Here  the  two 
not  only  joined  together  by  the  conjundive  copuhtive,  but  arc 
moreover  clofely  connected  in  fenfe  by  the  part  of  the  fentence 
immediately  following,  in  which  the  corrcfpondent  nouns  and 
verbs  i^re  plural :  the  vcrU  thercfoye  in  the  fin^-<Iar  number 
feems  highly  improper, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  77 

"  Who  is  it  in  the  prefs  that  calls  on  me  ?" 

Shakefpear,  Jul.  Caef. 

2.  "  H.   How  is  //  with  you  Lady  ? 
Alas  !   how  is  it  with  you  ?" 

Shakefpear,  Hamlet. 

3.  "  You  heard  her  fay  hcrfelf,  it  was  not  I.— 
'2was  I  that  kill'd  her." 

Shakefpear,   Othello. 

"  //  rains ;  it  mines ;  //  thunders."  From 
which  lad  example,  it  plainly  appears,  that  there 
is  no  fuch  thing  in  Englifli,  nor  indeed  in  any 
language,  as  a  fort  of  verbs,  which  are  really 
imperfonal.  The  agent,  or  perfon  in  Englifh,  is 
exprefled  by  the  neuter  pronoun  ;  in  fome  other 
languages  it  is  omitted,  but  underftood.  [3] 

The  verb  to  be  has  always  a  nominative  cafe 
after  it ;  as,  "  it  was  /,  and  not  he  that  did  it :" 
unlefs  it  be  in  the  infinitive  mode  ;  "  though  you 
took  it  to  be  him."  [4] 

H  2  The 

[3]  Examples  of  Impropriety  in  the  ufc  of  the  neuter  pro 
noun,  fee  below,  p.  no,  note  I. 

[4]  l  Whom  do  men  lay,  that  /  am  ? — But  nvLom  fay  ye,  that 
Iafi%r  Matth.  xvi.  13 — 15.  So  likewife  Mark  viii.  27 — 29. 
Luke  ix.  1 8 — ao.  '  Whom  think  ye  that  I  am  /"  A&sxiii.  25. 
It  ought  in  all  thefe  places  to  be  ivbo  ;  which  is  not  governed  by 
the  verb  fay  or  think,  but  by  the  verb  am  :  or  agrees  in  cafe  with 
the  pronoun  I.  If  the  verb  were  in  the  infinitive  mode,  ic 
would  require  the  objective  cafe  of  the  relative,  agreeing  with 
the  pronoun  me:  '  Whom  think  ye,  or  do  ye  think,  me  toie?y 

4  To  that,  ivbich  once  ivas  tbee  '  Prior. 

It  ought  to  be,  wbicb  ivas  tbou ;  or,  "which  thou  "wajt.  "  It  is  not 
me  you  are  in  love  with."  Specl.  No.  290.  The  prepofiticn 
ivlth  fhould  govern  the  relative  ivlom  underftood,  nor  the  ante 
cedent  me ;  which  ought  to  be  /. 

«  Art 


y8  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  adverbs  when,  while,  after,  &c.  being  left 
out,  the  phrafe  is  formed  by  the  participle  inde 
pendently  on  the  reft  of  the  fentence  :  as,  "  The 
doors  being  (hut,  Jefus  flood  in  the  midft."  This  . 
is  called  the  cafe  abfolute.  And  the  cafe  is  in 
Englifh,  always  the  nominative  :  as, 

"  God  from  the  mount  of  Sinai,   whofe  grey 
top 

Shall  tremble,   He  defending^  [5]  will  himfelf, 

In 

'  Art  thou  proud  yet  ? 

Ay,  that  I  am  not  tbee.'  Shakefpear,  Tim  on. 

'  Time  was,  when  none  would  cry,  that  oaf  was  me  : 
But  now  you  flrive  about  your  pedigree.' 

Dryden,  Prologue. 
«  Impoflible  !  it  can't  feme.*  Swift. 

[5]  On  which  place,  fays  Dr.  Bentley,  '  The  context  demands 
that  it  be — Him  descending,  illo  defcendente.'  But  him  is  not 
the  ablative  cafe,  for  the  Englifh  knows  no  fuch  cafe  ;  nor  does 
him  without  a  prepofition  en  any  occafion,  anfwer  to  the  Latin 
ablative  illo.  I  might,  with  better  reaibn  contend,  that  it  ought 
to  be,  '  bis  defcending;  and  it  would  be  as  good  grammar,  and 
as  proper  Englifh,  This  comes  of  forcing  the  Englifh,  under  the 
rules  of  a  foreign  language,  with  which  it  has  little  concern  : 
and  this  v^ly  and  deformed J 'unit,  to  ufe  his  own  expreffion,  Bent- 
ley  has  endeavored  to  impofe  upon  Milton  in  feveral  places  :  S*e 
P.  L.  vii.  15:  ix-  82-;,  883,  1147.  x-  267,  icoi.  On  the 
other  hand,  \vhere  Milton  has  been  really  guilty  of  this  fault, 
he,  very  inconfifteritly  with  himfelf,  corrects  him,  and  fets  him 
ri^ht.  His  .Latin  grammar  rules,  were  happily  out  of  his  head, 
and  by  a  kind  of  vernacular  injlinflt  (fo  I  imagine,  he  would  call 
it)  be  perceived  that  his  author  was  wrong. 

*  For  only  in  deftroying,  I  find  eafe 

To  my  rekntiefs  thoughts ;  and  l?m  dejlroy 'J, 

Or  won  to  what  may  wcrk  his  utter  lof*, 

For  whom  all  this  was  made,  all  this  will  foon 

Follow,  as  to  him  link'd  in  weal  or  woe.' 

P.  L.  ix.  129. 

It  ought  to    be,  '  LL-  cleftroy'd;'  that    is,   '  he  being  deftroy'd. 
Bentley  corredU  it,  '  and  man  deflroy'd.' 

Archbifhop 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  79 

In  thunder,     lightening,     and  loud  trumpet's 

found, 
Ordain  them  laws." 

Milton,  P.  L.  B.  xii.  1.  227. 
To  before  a  verb,  is  the  fign  of  the  infinitive 
mode  :  but  there  are  fome  verbs,  which  have 
commonly  other  verbs  following  them  in  the  in 
finitive  mode,  without  the  fign  to :  as,  bid,  dare, 
needy  make,  fee,  hear,  feel ;  as  alfo  let,  and  fome- 
times  have,  not  ufed  as  auxiliaries  ;  and  perhaps  a 
few  others  :  as,  I  bade  him  do  it:  you  dare  not  do 
it ;  If  aw  him  [6j  do  it  -,  I  heard  him  fay  it."  [7] 

The 

Archbifhop  Tillotfon,  has  fallen  into  the  fame  miftake  :  '  Solo 
mon  was  of  this  mind  ;  and  I  make  no  doubt,  but  he  made  as 
wife  and  true  proverbs  as  any  body  has  done  fince  :  him  only 
excepted,  who  was  a  much  wifer  and  greater  man  than  Solomon.' 
Serm.  I.  53. 

[6]  '  To  fee  fo  many  to  male  fo  little  conference  of  fo  great  a 
fin.'  Tiliotfun,  Serm.  I,  2Z  *  It  cannot  but  be  a  delightful 
fpe£acle  to  God  and  angels,  to  fee  a  young  perfon  befieged  by 
powerful  temptations  on  either  fide,  to  acquit  himfeif  glorioufly, 
and  refolutely,  to  hold  out  againft  the  molt  violent  affaults  :  to 
behold  one  in  the  prime  and  flower  of  his  age,  that  is  courted  by 
pleafures  and  honors,  by  the  Devil,  and  all  the  bewitching  vani 
ties  of  the  world,  to  rejeft  all  thefe,  and  to  cleave  ftedfaftly  unto 
God.'  Ib.  Serm.  54.  1  he  impropriety  of  the  phrafes  diftin- 
guifhed  by  Italic  characters  is  evident.  See  Matth.  xv.  31. 
[7]  *  What,  know  you  not, 

Being  mechanical,  you  ought  not  ivalL, 

Upon  a  labouring  day,  without  the  fign. 

Of  your  profeflion  ?'  Shakefpear,  Jul.  Caef. 

Both  grammar  and  cuftom  require,  '  ought  not  to  ivalk?  Ought 
is  not  one  of  the  auxiliary  verbs,  though  often  reckoned  among 
them,  that  it  cannot  be  fuch,  is  plain  from  this  confideration  ; 
that,  if  we  confult  cuftom  and  our  ear,  it  does  admit  of  another 
verb  immediately  following  it,  without  the  prepofition  to, 

*  To  ivijb  him  ivreflle  with  affection.' 

Shakefpear,  Much  ado  about  Nothing. 

*  Nor 


So  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  infinitive  models  often  made  abfolute,  or 
ufed  independently  of  the  reft-  of  the  fentence  ; 
(applying  the  place  of  the  conjunction  that  with 
the  fubjunctive  mode  :  as,  "  to  csnfefs  the  truth, 
I  was  in  fault  j"  to  begin  with  the  firft, "  to  proceed" 
"  to  conclude"  that  is,  "that  I  may  confefs ;  £c." 

The  infinitive  mode  has  much  of -the  nature  of 
a  fubflantive •,  expreffing  the  adtion  itfelf,  which 
the  verb  fignifies  ;  as  the  participle  has  the  nature 
of  an  adjective.  Thus  the  infinitive  mode  does 
the  office  of  a  fubflantive  in  different  cafes  ;  in 
the  nominative  \  as,  "  to  play  is  pleafant :"  in  the 
objective ;  as,  "  boys  love  to  play."  In  Greek  it 
admits  of  the  article  through  all  its  cafes,  with 
the  prepofition  in  the  oblique  cafes  :  in  Englim 
the  article  is  not  wanted,  but  the  prepofition  may 
be  ufed  :  "  For  to  ivill  is  prefent  with  me  ;  but 
to  perform  that  which  is  good  I  find  not."  [8] 
"  All  their  works  they  do  for  to  befien  of  men."  [9] 

But 

'  Nor  with  lefs  dread  the  loud 
Etherial  trumpet  from  on  high  'gan  blow.' 

Milton,  P.  L.  -vi.  60. 

Thefe  phrafcs  are  poetical,  and  by  no  means  allowable  in 
profe. 

[8]  Rom.  vii.  18. 

[9]  Matth.  xxiii.  5.  The  following  fcntences  feem  defe&ive 
either  in  the  conftruclion,  or  the  order  of  the  words :  Why  do 
ye  that  'which  is  not  lawful  to  do  on  the  fabbath  days  ? — The  fhew- 
bread,  "which  is  not  lawful  to  eat,  but  for  the  prieits  alone.'  Luke, 
vi.  2—4  The  co nit ru dl ion  may  be  rectified,  by  fupplying;  it  ; 
*  which  it  is  not  lawful  to  do;  which  it  is  not  lawful  to  eat :'  or 
the  order  of  the  words  in  this  manner ;  '  to  do  which,  to  eat  -which, 
is  not  lawful  :'  Where  the  infinitive  to  da,  to  eat,  does  the  office 
of  the  nominative  caie,  and  the  relative  -which  is  in  the  objective 
cafe. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  81 

But  the  ufe  of  the  prepoGtion,  in  this  and  the  like 
phrafes,  is  now  become  obfolete. 

"  For  not  to  have  been- dip d  in  Lethe's  lake 

Could  fave  the  fon  of  Thetis  from  to  die" 

Spenfer. 

Perhaps  therefore  the  infinitive,  and  the  partici 
ple,  might  be  more  properly  called  the  fubftantive 
mode,  and  the  adjective  mode,  [i.] 

The  participle  with  a  prepofition  before  it,  and 
flill  retaining  its  government,  anfwers,  to  what 
is  called  in  Latin  the  Gerund  :  as,  "  Happinefs 
is  to  be  attained,  by  avoiding  evil,  and  by  doing 
good  ;  by  feeking  peace,  and  by  purfuing  it." 

The  participle,  with  an  article  before  it,  and 
the  prepofition  of  after  it,  becomes  a  fubftantive, 
exprefling  the  a£lion  itfelf,  which  the  verb  figni- 
fies  :  (X).  "  Thefe  are  the  rules  of  Grammar,  by 

the 

[ij  '  Here  you  may  fee,  that  vifions  are  to  dread.' 

Drydcn,  Fables. 

'  lam  not  like  other  men,  t»  envy  the  talents  I  cannot  reach.' 
Tale  of  a  Tub,  Preface.  *  Grammarians  have  denied,  or  at 
leaft  doubted,  tbetnio  &•  genuine.'  Cangreve's  Preface  to  Homer's 
Hymn  to  Venus.  *  That  all  our  doings  may  be  ordered  by  thy 
governance,  to  do  always  that  is  righteous  in  thy  fight.'  Liturgy. 
The  infinitive  in  thefe  places  feems  to  be  improperly  ufed. 

[a]  This  rule  arifes.  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  lan 
guage  :  and  from  as  plain  a  principle,  as  any  on  which  it  is 
founded;  namely,  that  a  word,  which  has  the  article  before  it, 
and  the  pofleflive  prepofition  of  after  it,  muft  be  a  noun  ;  and  if 
a  noun,  it  ought  to  follow  the  conftru&ion  of  a  noun,  and  net 
to  have  the  regimen  of  a  verb.  It  is  the  participial  termination 
of  this  fort  of  words,  that  is  apt  to  deceive  us,  and  make  us 
treat  them,  as  if  they  were  of  an  amphibious  fpecies,  partly 
nouns,  and  partly  verbs.  1  believe  there  are  hardly  any  of  our 
writers,  who  have  not  fallen  into  this  inaccuracy.  Thpt  it  is 
fuch,  will  perhaps  more  clearly  appear,  if  we  examine  and 
rcfolve  one  or  two  examples  in  this  kind.  «•  God, 


82  INTRODUCTION  TO 

tie  obfervixg  of  which  you  may  avoid  mifbkes.  Or 
it  may  be  expreffcd  by  the  participle,  or  gerund, 
<c  by  obferving  which  :"  not,  "  by  obferving  of 
which  j"  nor,  "  by  the  obferving  which  :"  for  ei 
ther  of  thofe  two  phrafes,  would  be  a  confounding 
of  two  diftinc~!  forms. 

I  will  add  another  example,  and  that  of  the 
bed  authority  :  "  The  middle  ftation  of  life, 
feems  to  be  the  mofl  advantageoufly  fituated  for  the 

gaining 

"  God,  who  didlV  tsach  the  hearts  of  thy  faithful  people,  by 
tie  fending  to  them  ibe  light  of  thy  Holy  Spirit; — '»  Collet 
Whitfunday.  Seeding  is  in  this  place  a  noun  ;  for  it  is  accompa 
nied  with  the  article;  neverthelcfs  it  isalfo  a  tranfitive  verb,  for 
it  governs  the  noun  light  in  the  objective  cafe  ;  but  this  is  incon- 
filtent  i  let  it  be  either  the  one  or  the  other,  and  abide  by  its 
proper  conftrudtion.  That  thefe  participial  words  are  fometimes 
real  uouns  is  undeniable  ;  for  they  have  a  plural  number  asfuch  ; 
as,  *  the  outgoings  of  the  morning.'  'lie fending  is  the  fame  with 
the  mijjion  ;  \vh:ch  neceflarily  requires  the  prepofition  of  after  it, 
to  mark  the  relation  between  it  and  the  light;  the  mi/pan  of  the 
light ;  and  fo,  the  fending  of  the  light.  The  phrafe  woukl  be  pro 
per  either  way,  by  keeping  to  the  conftrudtion  of  the  noun,  by 
the  findin-r  of  the  light ;  or  of  the  participle,  or  gerund,  by  fending 
til  light.  » 

Again  :— *  Sent  to  prepare  the  way  of  thy  fon  our  Saviour,  Ly 
preaching  of  refentancg  ;'  Colle<ft,  St.  John  Baptift.  Here  the  par 
ticiple,  or  gerund,  hath  as  improperly  the  prepofition  of  after  it  ; 
and  fo  is  deprived  of  its  verbal  regimen,  by  which,  as  a  trunfi- 
tive,  it  would  govern  the  noun  repeniana  in  the  objective  cafe. 
Befides,  the  phrafe  is  rendered  obfcure  and  ambiguous  :  for  the 
obvious  meaning  of  it,  in  its  prefent  form  is,  *  by  preaching 
concerning  repentance,  or  on  thsit  fubjec~t ;'  whereas  the  ftnfe 
intended  is,  '  by  pubhfhing  the  covenant  of  repentance,  and 
declaring  repentance  to  be  a  condition  of  acceptance  with  God.* 
The  phrafe  would  have  been  perfectly  right,  and  determinate 
to  this  fenfe,  either  way  ;  by  the  noun  by  th?  preaching  of  r:pm- 
tence,  or  by  the  participle  kypreaebiagrcpvnttiiice, 
*  So  well-bred  fpaniels  civilly  delight 
/«  esumkH-''*  rf  tie  game^  tiiey  dare  not  bite.' 

Pr.pe,  Epilt.  to  Arbuthnct. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  % 

of  wifdom.  Poverty  turns  our  thoughts 
too  much  upon  the  fupplying  of  our  wants,  and 
riches  upon  enjoying  our  fuperfiuities."  Addifon, 
.  No.  464. 

The  participle  frequently  becomes  altogether 
an  adjective,  when  it  is  joined  to  a  fubflantive 
merely  to  denote  its  quality  j  without  any  refpecl: 
to  time  ;  exprefiing,  not  an  action,  but  a  habit ; 
and  as  fuch,  it  admits  of  the  degrees  of  compan 
ion  :  as,  "  a  learned,  a  more  learned,  a  mod 
learned  man  ;  a  loving,  more  loving,  mod  loving 
father."  [3] 

Simple  fentences  are,  i.  Explicative,  or  ex 
plaining  :  2.  Interrogative,  or  afldng :  3.  Impe 
rative,  or  commanding.  [4]  ,  I. 

[3"]  In  a  few  inflances.the  active  prefent  participle  hath  been 
vulgarly  ufed  in  a  pafiive  fenfe  ,  as,  beholding  for  beholden  :  O'w.'acr 
oiven.  And  fome  of  our  writers  are  not  quke  free  from  this 
rniilake  : 

4  1  would  not  be  beloUlng  to  fortune  for  any  part  of  the  victory.' 

Sidney. 

«  I  teach  you  all,  what's  oiuing  to  your  queen.'  Dryden. 

'  The  debt,  owing  from  one  country  to  the  other,  cannot  be  paid 
without  real  effects  fent  thither  to  that  value.'  Locke. 

'  We  have  the  means  in  our  hands,  and  nothing  but  the  applica 
tion  of  them  is  wanting.'  Addifon. 

So  likewife  the  paflivt  participle  is  often  employed  in  an  active 
ftnfe,  in  the  word  mljlaten^  ufed  inftead  of  mijlnking  : 
'  You  are  too  much  miflaken  in  this  king. 

Shakefpear,  Henry  V, 

*  I  miftake  ;'  or,  '  I  am  miftakcn  ;'  means,  '  1  mifunderftand  :' 
but,  '  I  am  miftaken,'  means  properly,  «  I  am  mifunderitood.' 

j[4J|  Thefe  are  the  three  primary  modes,  or  manners  ot  expref- 
fing  our  thoughts  concerning  the  teing,  doing  or  fufTering  of  a 
thing.  If  it  comes  within  our  knowledge,  we  explain  it,  or 
make  a  declaration  of  it ;  if  we  are  ignorant  of  it,  or  doubtful, 
we  make  an  enquiry  about  it ;  if  it  is  not  immediately  in  our 
power,  we  exprcfs  our  deGre  or  will  concerning  it.  In  Theory, 

therefore 


«M-  INTRODUCTION  TO 

1.  An  explicative  fentence  is,  when  a  thing  is 
faid  to  be,  or  not  to  be  ;  to  do,  or  not  to  do  ;   to 
fuffer,  or  not  to  fuffer  j   in  a  direft  manner  :  as  in 
the  foregoing  examples.      If  the  fentence  be  nega 
tive,  the  adverb  not  is  placed  after  the  auxiliary;  or 
after  the  adverb  itfelf,  when  it  has  no  auxiliary:  as, 
"  It  did  not  touch  him  j"  or  "  it  totiched\\\m  not"[_$~l 

2.  In  an   interrogative   fentence,    or    when   a 
queftion  is  afked,  the  nominative  cafe  follows  the 
principal  verb,  or  the  auxiliary  :  as,  "  was  if  he  ?" 
"  'did  Alexander  conquer  the  Perfians  ?"     And  the 
adverb   there,  accompanying  the  verb  neuter,  is 
alfo  placed  after  the  verb :  as,  "  ivas  there  a  man  ?" 
So  that  the  queftion  depends  intirely  on  the  order 
of  the  words.  [6]  3. 

therefore,  the  interrogative  form  feems  to  have  as  good  a  title 
to  a  mode  of  its  own,  as  either  of  the  other  two,  but  practice 
hath  determined  it  otherwife ;  and  has,  in  all  the  languages  with 
which  we  are  much  acquainted,  fnpplied  the  place  of  an  interro 
gative  mode,  either  by  particles  of  interrogation,  or  by  a  pecu 
liar  order  of  the  words  in  the  fentence.  If  it  be  true,  as  1  have 
fome  where  read,  that  the  modes  of  the  verbs,  are  more  nume 
rous  in  the  Lapland  tongue,  than  in  any  other,  poffibly  the 
Laplanders  may  be  provided  with  an  interrogative  mode, 
[jj  '  The  burning  lever  not  deludes  his  pains.' 

Dryden.  Ovid  Metam.  B.  xii. 

*  I  hope,  my  Lord,  faid  he,  I  not  offend.'  Dryden,  Fables. 
Thefe  examples  make  the  impropriety  of  placing  the  adverb  not 
before  the  verb  very  evident.  Shakefpear  frequently  places  the 
negative  before  the  verb  : 

*  She  not  denies  it,'  Much  ado. 

*  For  men 

Can  counfel,  and  give  comfort  to  that  grief, 
Which  they  themfelves  not  feel  '  Ilnd. 

It  fcems  therefore,  as  if  this  order  of  words  had  anticntly  been 
much  in  ufe,  though  now  grown  altogether  obfolete. 

[6]  Did  he  not  fear  the  Lord,  and  befotigbt  the  Lord,  and  the 
Lord  rcfrenttd  him  of  the  evil  which  he  had  pronounced  againft 

them  ? 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  £5 

3.  In  an  imperative  fentence,  when  a  thing  is 
commanded  to  be,  to  do,  to  fuffer,  or  not ;  the 
nominative  cafe  follows  the  verb,  or  the  auxiliary: 
as,  "  Go,  thou  traitor  j"  or,  "  do  thou  go  :"  or 
the  auxiliary  let,  with  the  objective  [7]  cafe  after 
it,  is  ufed :  as,  "  Let  us  be  gone."  [8] 

I  The 

them  ?  Jer.  xxvi.  19.  Here  the  interrogative  and  explicative  forms 
are  confounded.  It  ought  to  be,  '  Did  he  notftar  the  Lord,  and 
bffeecb  the  Lord  ?  and  did  not  the  Lord  repent  him  of  the  evil  ?' 
*  If  a  man  have  an  hundred  flieep,  and  one  of  them  be  gone 
aftray,  doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  and  goetb  into  the 
mountains,  '&s\&  feeketb  that  which  is  gone  aftray?  Mat.  xviii.  ia. 
It  ought  to  be  go  and  feek ;  that  is,  doth  he  not  go  and  feek  that 
v/hich  is  gone  aftray  ? 

[7]  '  For  ever  in  this  humble  cell 

Let  Thee  and  /,  my  fair  one,  dwell.'  Prior. 

It  ought  to  be  m:, 

[8]  It  is  not  eafy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  management 
of  the  modes  and  times  of  verbs,  wkh  refpe<5l  to  one  another,  fo 
that  they  may  be  proper  ana  confident ;  nor  would  it  be  of  much 
ufer  for  the  bed  rule  that  can  be  t;ivcn  is  this  very  general  one, 
to  obferve  whit  the  feme  neceffaniy  requires.  Buc  it  may  be  of 
life  to  confider  one  or  two  examples,  that  ften  faulty  in  thefe 
refpedls;  and  to  examine  where  the  fault  lies. 

*  Some  who  the  depth  of  eloquence  have  found, 
In  that  unriavigable  ftream  were  drawn* d? 

Dryden,  Juv.  Sat.  x. 

The  event  mentioned  in  the  firft  line  is  plainly  prior  in  time  to 
that  mentioned  in  the  fecond  •  this  is  fubfequent  to  that,  and  a 
confequence  of  it.  The  firft  event  is  mentioned  in  the  prefent. 
perfect  time  ;  it  is  prefent  and  completed  ;  they  have  (now)/o*W 
the  depth  of  eloquence.  The  fecond  event  is  exprefied  in  the  paft 
indefinite  time;  it  is  paft  and  gone,  but  when  it  happened  un 
certain  :  *  they  ivere  drown  d?  We  obferved,  that  the  laft  men 
tioned  event  is  fubfequent  to  the  firft  :  but  how  can  the  paft  time 
be  fubfequent  to  the  prefent  ?  It  therefore  ought  to  be,  in  the  fe 
cond  line,  are,  or  bave  been,  drowned,  in  the  prefent  indefinite, 
or  perfect ;  which  is  confident  with  the  prefent  perfect  time  in  the 
firft  line  :  or,  in  the  firft  line  badfour.d  in  the  pa-ft  perfect  ;  which 
would  be  confident  with  the  paft  indefinite  in  the  fecond  line. 

•  Friend 


86  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  Adjective  in  Englifh,  having  no  variation 
of  gender  or  number,  cannot  but  agree  with  the 

.  fubilantive 

'  Friend  to  my  life,  which  did  not  you  prolong, 

'  The  world  had  -wanted  many  an  idlefong.' 

Pope,  Epiftle  to  Arbuthrcot. 
It  ought  to  be,  either  /Wt>ot  you  prolonged  •,  or,  would  want. 

Tiit-re  feems  to  be  a  fault  of,  the  like  nature  in  the  following 
pafiage : 

'  But  oh  !  'twas  little  that  her  life 

O'er  earth  and  waters  -bears  thy  fame 3-— — '  :  Piior. 

It  ought  to  he  Z>ore,  in  the  fecond  line. 
Again, 

1  Him  portion'd  maide,  apprentic'd  orphans  lleji^ 

The  young  who  labour^  and  the  old  who  reft."1 

P-'pe,  Moral  Ep.  iii.  267. 

'  Fierce  as  he  mov'ff,  his  filver  fnafts  nfiund.' 
The  firil  verb  ought  to  be  in  the  fame  time  with  the  following: 

"  Great  Queen  of  arms,  whofe  favor  Tydeus  won, 

As  thou  defend' ft  the  fire,  defend  the  fon.'' 

Pope,  Iliad,  X..337. 
It  ought  to  be  defenddft 

f  Had  their  records  been  delivered  down  in  the  vulgar  tongue, 
they  could  not  now  be  underftood,  unleis  by  antiquaries,  who 
made  it  their  chief  ftudy  to  expound  them.'  Swift,  Letters  on 
the  FngHfh  Tongue.  Here  the  letter  part  of  the  lentence 
depends  intirely  on  the '  fupfofithn  expreffed  in  the  former,  'of 
their  records  being  delivered  down  in  tbe  vulgar  tongue  :  there 
fore  made  in  the  indicative  mode,  which  implies  no  iuppofition, 
and  in  the  pall  indefinite  time  is  improper  :  It  would  be  much 
better  in  the  pa  ft  definite  and  perfect,  had  made;  but  indeed 
ought  to  be  in  the  fubjunclive.  mode,  prefait  or  pail  time,  fondd 
make,  or  Jhorld  have  made. 

*  And  Jefus  anfwered,  and  faid  unto  him,  What  wilt  thou 
that  I  fhould  do  unto  thee  ?  The  blind  man  faid  unto  him.  Lord, 
that  I  might  receive  my  fight.'  Mark  x.  51.  *  1  hat  I  may 
know  him,  and  the  power  of  his  re  furred  ion,  and  the  fellow- 
fhip  of  his  fuffeiing-,  being  made  conformable  unto  his  death; 
if  by  any  means  1  mi^bt  ari  t,;n  unto  the  refurrectioii  of  the  dead,* 
Phil,  iii,  10 — II.  "it  ought  to  be  may  in  both  places.  See  alfo 
John  ix.  39.  Ephef.  iii.  19.  Col.  i.  9—10. 

'  On  the  morrow,  bccaufe  he  would  have  Ir-cwn  tbe  certainty, 
wherefore  he  was  accufed  of  the  Jews,  he  lo»,!cd  h"u  '  Acls 
xxii  30.  If  ouj-ht  to  be  bccaufe  he  would  know ;  or  rather, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  87 

{ubftantive  in  thofe  refpeds  ;  fome  of  the  prono 
minal  adjectives  only  excepted,  which  have  the 
plural  number  :  as,  thefe  >  thofe  :  which  mull  agree 
in  number  [9]  wkh  their  fubftantives. 

Nouns 

*  I  thought  -to.  have  written  laft  week;'  is  a  very  common  phrafe  : 
the  infinitive  being  in  the  paft  time  as  well  as  the  verb,  which  ic 
fallows.  But  it  is  certainly  vicious  ;  for  how  long  focver  it  nuiu 
is  fince  I  thought,  to  wile  was  lien  prcicnt  to  me  ;  and  mufl  itiil 
be  coijfidered  as  prafent,  when  I  bring  back  that  time,  and  the 
thoughts  of  it.  It  ought  to  be  therefore,  '  I  thought  to  -zi-rife  lalb 
week.'  '  I  cannot  excufe  the  remiffnefs  of  thofe,  wh'ofe  btifine^j 
itjkuuldha-ve  lean,  as  it  certainly  -ivas  tholr'into-reit,  to  have  ini^i-- 
poftd  their  good  offices.'  Swift.  'There  were  two  circumftan- 
ces,  which  ivould  bd-ve  made  it  neceffary  for  them  to  hai>s  ufi  no 
time.'  Ibid.  '  Hiftdry  painters,  ivould  have  found  it  difiLuh,  ia 
lave  invented  fuch  a  fpecies  of  beings.'  Addifon,  Dial.  I.  pa 
Aledals.  It  ought  to  be,  leiaferpofej  to  tofe,  to  invent.: 

[9]  '  By  this  means  thou  ill ak  have  no  portion  on  this  fide  tlic 
river.'  Ezra  iv.  16.  '  It  renders  us  carclefs  of  approving  our- 
ielves  to  God  by  religious  duties,  and  by  that  means  fecuriiig  the 
continuance  of  his  goodnefs.5  Aueibury,  Sermons.  Ought  it 
not  to  be,  by  tbefe. .means*  by  thofi  means  ?  or  by  this  mean,  by  that 
mean,  in  the  fingular  number  ?  .as  it  is  ufed  by  Hooker,  Sidney, 
Shakefpear,  &c. 

'  We  have  flricT:  ftatute.s,  and  mofl  biting  laws,  . 
Which  for  tbh  nineteen  yean  we  have  let  fleep.' 

Shukefpear,  Meaf.  for  Meaf. 

*  -I  have  not  wept  this  forty  years.'  '  Dryden,     '  If  I  had  not  left 
off  troubling  myfelf  about  thofe-  kin d  of   things.1     Swift,  Letter 
to  Steel.      '  I  fancy  they  are  thefe  kind  of    Gods,    which   Horace 
mentions  in  his  allegorical  veffel.'     Addifon,  Dial.  II.  on  Medals. 

*  I  am  not  recommending/^  kind-  of  fufferings  to  your  liking.' 
Bifhop  Sherlock,  Difc,  Vol.  II.   n.     So  the  pronoun  muft  agree 
with  its  noun  :  in  which   refpedl  let  the   following  example  be 
confidered.     *  //  is  an  unanfwerable  argument  of  a  very  reined 
age,  the  wonderful  civilities  that  have  paffed  between  the  nation 
of  authors  and  that  of  readers.'     Swift,  Tale  of  a  Tub,  Seel.  x. 
As  to  thefe  wonderful  civilities,  one  might  fay,  that  '  they  are  an 
unanfwerable  argument,  &c.'  but  as  the  fentence  ftands  at  pre- 
fetit  it  is  not  fafy  to  reconcile  it  to  any  grammatical  propriety. 
'  A perfon  (that  is,  one}  ivhom  all  the  world   allows  to  be  fo  much 
yaur,  tetters,'     Swift,  Battle  of  Books.      *  His  face  ivas  eafily 

taken  o 


88  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Nouns  of  meafure  and  number  are  fometimes 
joined  in  the  fingular  form  with  numeral  adjectives 
denoting  plurality  :  as-  "  Fifty  foot  ju  "  Si\Jcore." 

"  Ten  thoukndfatkom  deep." 

Milton,  P.   L.   ii.  934. 

M  A  hundred  head  of  Ariftotle's  friends." 

Pope,   Dunciad,  iv.  192. 

The  adje&ive  generally  goes  before  the  noun  ; 
as,  "  a  wife  man ;  a  good  horfe ,"  unlefs  forne- 
thing  depend  on  the  adjective  ;  as,  "  food  conve 
nient  for  me :"  or  the  adjective  be  emphatical ;. 
as,  "  Alexander  the  Great :"  and  it  ftands  imme 
diately  before  the  noun,  unlefs  the  verb  to  be,  or 
any  auxiliary  joined  to  it,  come  between  the  ad 
jective  and  the  noun  ;  as,  "  happy  is  the  man  j 
happy  (hall  he  be."  And  the  article  goes  before 
the  adjective  ;  except  the  adjectives  all9fuch,  and 
many,  and  others  fubjoined  to  the  adverbs,  fc,  as, 
and  hoiv\  "as,  all  the  men;"  " fuch  a  man-," 
»M«y  a  m&n  j"  c< fo  good  a  man-,"  "  as  good  a 
man  as  ever  lived ;"  <c  how  beautiful  a  profpecl  is 
here  !"  And  fometimes,  when  there  are  two  or 

more 

taken  either  in  painting  or  fculpmre;  and  f.i<rce  any  o;;,», 
never  fo  intlififtrcntly  fkulecl  in  //;•/>  arc;  hdied  to  hit  ir. 
woods's  Memoirs,  ]).  68.  6th  Edit.  A '.id  the  phru'-j  v, 
curs  in  the  lollowii:<>;  examples,  though  c*'  <n  and 

authorized  by  cuftom,  yet  {ccnis  to  be  ;      .     .  h  .'   .    I 
fume  v. 

'   '•/'.':  ;-.*cfe,  that  early  taint  the  f^ri.ai;- foul.'  P:,i  c, 

'  '7*:s  //\-j,  that  give  tlie  great  Ati ides'  fpoilc  ; 
'   'fist/jry,  that  itill  renew  UiyfTes'  toils.' 

'  Who  was't  came  by  ? 

"Tw  tv.-o  or  tkreey  my  Lord,  that  brjng  you  word, 
Macdufl"  is  fled  to  England.'  Sh'Acfpear,  Maq.b* 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR..  89 

more  adjectives  joined  to  the  noun,  the  adjectives 
follow  the  noun  :  as,  "  a  man  learned  and  religi 
ous." 

There  are  certain  adjeftives,  which  feem  to  be 
derived  without  any  variation  from  verbs,,  and 
have  the  fame  fignification  with  the  pafTive  parti 
ciples  of  their  verbs :  they  -are  indeed  no  other 
than  Latin  paflfwe  participles  adapted  to  the  Englifh 
termination  :  as,  annihilate)  contaminate,  elate ; 

(  To   deftruction   facrcd  and  devote.1      Milton 

*  The  alien  compoft  is  cxkauft? 

Philips,    Cyder, 

Thefe  (fome  few  excepted,.  which  have  gained 
ad  mi  (lion  into  common  difcourfe,)  are  much  more 
frequently,  and  more  allowably,  ufed  in  poetry, 
than  in  profe.  [0 

The   didributive    pronominal    adje&ives    each, 

every,  either,    agree    with   the   nouns,    pronouns* 

and  verbs  of  the  fmguhr  number  only  :  [2]  as, 

I  2  "The 

£i]  Adje&ives  of  this  fort  are  fometimes  very  improperly; 
ufc  t,  with  the  auxiliary  bai>ft  or  bad,  inftead  of  the  adtive  per- 
fed  participle  :  as,  "Which  alfo  king  David  did  dedicate  mito 
the  Lord,  with  the  filver  and  gold  that  he  bad'  dediiats  of  all 
nations  which  he  fubdued."  2  Sara.  viii.  11.  '  And  Jehoafh 
took  all  the  hallowed  things,  that — his  fackers,  kings  of  Judah, 
had  dedicate?  i  Kings,  xii.  18.  So  likewife  Dan.  iii.  19.  It 
ought  to  be,  had  dedicated.  '  When  both  interefts  of  tyranny 
and  epifcopacy  ivere  Incorporate  into  each  other.'  Milton,  Eico- 
noclall,  xvii. 

[2]  '  Let  eacl  efteem  other  better  than  tLemfelves .'  Phil.  ii.  3. 
It  ought  to  be,  bimfelf,  *  It  is  requif;te,  that  the  language  of  an 
heroic  poem  fhotild  be  both  perfpicuous  and  fublin^e.  In  pro 
portion  as  citber  of  thefe  two  qualities  are  [is]  wanting,  the  lan 
guage  is  imgerie<ft.'  Addifon,  Speft,  No,  285.  •  "Tis  obftrva- 

b-.e 


9o  INTRODUCTION  TO 

4(  The  king  of  Ifrael  and  Jehofaphat  the  king  of 
Judah  fat,  each  (king)  OH  his  throne*  having  (both) 
put  on  their  robes."  I  Kings,  xxii.  10.  "Every 
tree  is  known  by  Us  own  fruit."  Luke  vi.  44. 

"  Lepidu.s  flatters  both, 
Of  both  is  flatter'd  j  but  he  neither  loves, 
Nor  either  cares  for  him." 

Shakefpear,  Ant.  and  Cleopv 
Unlefs  the  plural  noun  convey  a  coliective  idea  : 
as,^  M  That  every  twelve  -ysars  there  fhould  be  fet 
forth  two  (hips."  Bacon., 

Every  verb>  except  in  the  infinitive,  or  the 
participle,  hath  its  nominative- cafe,  either  exprefs- 
ed : or  implied  :  [3]  asr 

*  Awake, 

We,  that  every  one  cf  the  Utters  Itar  date  after  his  banifhment ; 
and  contain  a  complete  narrative  of  ail  his  ftory.,  afterwards.' 
Bentley,  DifTert.  on  Therniftodc's  Epiftks,  Sedi.  ii.  It  ought 
to  be  tears,  and  they  contain. 

Either  is  often  ufed  improperly  inflead  oi-ufcb  :  as,  *  The  kirg 
of  Jfrael,  and  Jehofaphat  king:  of  Judah  fat  e:iler  {sacli]  of  them 
on  his  throne.'  2  Chron.  xviii.  9.  '  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the- 
fons  of  Aaron,  took  either  [each]  of  them  his  cenfer.  Lev.  x. 
I,  See  alfo  i, Kings,  v>i,  15.  Each- :  fignifies  both  of  them, 
taken  diftin£ly,  or  feparately  :  either  properly  fignifies  only  tit 
«ne,  or  the  other )  of  them,  taken  disjunctively.  For  which  reafon 
the  like  exprtlficn  in  the  following  pauages  feemsalfo  improper  : 
1  They  crucified  two  other  with  him,  on  eit'xr  fide  one,  and 
Jcfus  in  the  midft.'  John-. six.  18.  '  Of  either  fide  of  the  river 
•was  there  the  tree  of  life.'  Rev.  xsii*  2.  See  alfo  I  Kings,  x* 
19.  '  Propofals  for  a  truce  between  the  ladies  of  either  party** 
Addifon,  Freeholder.  Contents  of  No.  38. 

[3]  .«  Forafmuch  as  it  hath  pleafcd  Almighty  God  of  his  good- 
nefs  to  give  you  fafe  deliverance,  and  Lath  frcfefve'ljoii  in  the 
great' danger  cf  childbirth.'  Liturgy.  The  verb,  lath  prefcri-cd* 
h^th  here  no  nominative  caf,. ;  for  it  cannot  be  properly  fupplied 
by  the  preceding  word  Cod,  which  is  in  the  objective  cafe.  It 
ought  to  be,  '  and-  be  bath  fnjtrvsd  youi'  or  rather^  '  and  to  pr'.- 
*  fervs 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  93, 

'Awake,  arife,  or  be  for  ever  fall'n  :* 
that  is,  (  Awake  ye,  &c.' 

Every  nomir.anve  cafe,  except  the  cafe  abfolute>,  , 
and  when  an  addrefs  is  made  to  a  perfon,  belongs 
to  fome  verb,  either  exprefied  or. implied :  [4]  as 

in 


ferve  you.'  Some  of  our-  befl  '.writers  have  frequently  fallen  into 
this,  which  appears  to  me  to  be  no  fmail  inaccuracy  :  I  fhall 
therefore  add  fome  more  examples  of  it,  by  way  of  admonition  ; 
inferting  in  each,  within  crotchets,  the  nominative  cafe  that  is 
deficient,  and  that  muft  neceffarily  be  fupplied  to  fupport  the 
proper  conftru&ion  of  the  fentence.  *  If  the  calm,  in  which  h$ 
was  born,  and  [which]  lafted.fo  long,  .had  continued.'  Claren 
don,  Life,  p.  43.  '  The  remonftrance  he  had  lately  received 
from  the  Houfe  of  Commons,  and  [which]  was  difperfed. through 
out  the  kingdom.'  Clarendon,  Hiil:.  Vol.  I.  p.  366,  8vo.  'Theic 
we  have  extracted  from  an  hiftorian  of  undoubted  credit,  a 
reverend  bifhop,- the  learned  Paulus  Jovius;  and  [they]  are  the 
fame  that  were  pradifed  under  the  pontificate  of  Leo.  X. '  Pope, 
Works,  Vol.  VI,  p.  301.  €  A  cloud-gathering,  in  the  north; 
which  we  have  helped  to  raife,  and  [which]  may  quickly  break 
m  a  ftorm  upon  our  heads.'  Swift,  Conduct  of  the  Allies.  '  A 
man,,  whofe  inclinations  led  him  to  be  corrupt,  and  [who]  had 
great, abilities  to  manage  and  multiply  and  defend  his  corruptions^ 
Gulliver,  Part  I.  Chap.  vi.  *  My  mafter  likewife  mentioned 
another  quality,  which  his  fervants  had  discovered  in  many  Ya 
hoos,  and  [which]  to  him  was  wholly  unaccountable.  Gulliver, 
Part -IV.  Chap,  vii,  '  This  I  filled  with  the  feathers  of  feveral 
birds  I  had  taken  with  fpringes  made  of  Yahoos  hairs,  and 
[which]  were  excellent  food.  Ibid.  Chap,  x.  '  Ofiris,  whom 
the  Grecians  call  Dionyfius,  and  [who]  is  the  fame  with  Batehus.* 
Swift,,  Mechan.  Oper.  of  the,  Spirit,  Seel.  ii.. 

*  Which  Homer  might  without  a  blufh  rehcarfet 
And/aai'ss  a  doubtful  palm  in  Virgil's  verfe,' 

Dryden,  Fables,  Dedication. 

*  Will  martial  flames  for  ever  fire  thy  mind, 

And  never,  never  i>e  to  Heav'n  rejignd ?     Odyffey,  xii.  145. 

1  And  will  [it,  thy  mind,]  never——' 

([4]  Which  rule,  if  it  had  been  obferved,  a  neighboring  prince 
would  have  warned  a  great  deal  of  that  incenfe  which  hath  been 
offered  up  to  him  by  his  adorers.'  Atterbury,  Serm.  I.  I.  The 
pronoun*'*  is  here  the  nominative  cafe  to  the  vetb  obferved •>  and 


92  INTRODUCTION  TQ 

in  the  anfvver  to  a  queftion  :    "  Who  wrote 
book?   Cicero:"  that  is,  "  Cicero  wrote  it"      Or 
when  the  verb  is  understood  ;.  as, 

'•  To  whom  thus  Adam  :' 
that  is,  fpake. 

Every  poffeffive  cafe  fuppofes  fome  noun,  to 
which  it  belongs  :  as  when  we  lay,  "  St.  Paul's,, 
or  St.  James's,"  we  mean  St.  Paul's  church,  or  St. 
James's  palace. 

Every  adjective  has  relation  to  fome  fubftantive,. 
either  expreiTed  or  implied  :  as,  "  The  Twelve," 
that  is,  Apojlle* ;  "  the  wife,  the  elecl:,"  that  is, 
perfins. 

In  fome  inftances  the  adje&ive  becomes  a  fub 
ftantive.  and  has  an  adjetlive  joined  to  it:  as, 
"the  chief  good  ;"  "  Evil  be  thou  my  good  !"  [5] 

In 

tvlich  rule  is  left  by  itfclf,  a  nominative  cafe  without  aay  verb 
following  it.  This  manner  of  cxpreflion,  however  improper,  is 
very  common.  ItoU<ot  fo  be,  *  If  this  rule  had  been  oblerved, 
&c.*'  '  We  have  no  better  materials  to  compound  the  priefthood 
of,  than  the  mafs  of  mankind  :  which,  corrupted  as  it  is,  thofe 
who  receive  orders  muft  have  fome  vices  to  leave  behind  them, 
when  they  enter  into  the  church.'  Swift,  Sentiments  of  a 
Church  of  Englandman. 

[5  J  Adjectives  arc  fometimes  employed  as  adverbs  :  impro 
perly,  and  net  agreeably  to  the  genius  of  the  Englifh  language* 
As,  '  indifferent  honeft,  excellent  well.  Shakefpcar,  Hamlet. 
4  Extreme  elaborate.'  Dryden.  ElTay  on  Dram.  Poet.  Tkf^rw/- 
lous  graceful.'  Clarendon,  Life,  p.  18.  '•Marvellous  worthy 
to  be  praifed/  Plal.  cxlv.  3.  for  fo  the  tranilators  gave  it. 
*  Extreme  unwilling  ;  extreme  fubjt&.'  Swift,  Tale  of  a  Tub, 
and  Battle  of  Books.  *  He  behaved  himfelf  conformable  to  that 
bleffed  example.'  Sprat's  Sermons,  p.  80.  '  I  fhall  endeavor 
to  live  hereafter  fuitalls  to  a  man  in  my  ftation.'  Acidifon, 
Specl.  No.  530.  '  The  C^ucen  having  changed  her  miniftry 

JuitoUt 


,    ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  93 

In  oihers,  the  fubftantive,  becomes  an  adje&ive 

or 

faitable  to  her  own  wifdom. '  Swift,  Fxam.  NO,  21.  *  The  affer- 
tions  of  this  author  are  cajier  detected.'  Swift,  Public  Spirit  of 
the  Whigs.  '  The  characteristic  of  his  feel  allowed  him  to 
affirm  nojironrer  thin  that.'  Benttey,  Phil.  Lipf.  Remark  LIII. 

*  If  one  author  he.;'  ivoken  nobler  and  loftier  than  another.'     Ibid. 

*  Xenophen  iV.ys  txfrefsS     Ibid.  Remark  XLV.     '  I  can  never 
think  fo  ™ery  wean  oi  him.'     Id.  DiiTcrtation  on  Phalaris,  p.  24. 
1  Homer  dcfcribes  this  river   agreeably  to   the  vulgar  reading.  *- 
Pope,  Note  or.  Iliad,  ii.  ver.   1033.     So  exceeding,  lor  exceedingly ^ 
however  improper,  occurs  frequently  In.  the  vulgar  tranflation  of 
the  Bii)!e,  ?.nd  has  obtained  in  common  difcourfe.     *  We  fhould; 
Jive  foberly,  rightecufly,  -*>:A  goJl\  in  this  prefent  world.'     Tit. 
ii.   12.     See  alfo  a  Tim.  iii.  13.   "'  To  convince  all  that  are  un 
godly  among  them,  of  all  their  ungodly  deeds,  which  they  have 
ungodly  committed,'     Jude  15.     '  I  think  it  very  majierly  written.' 
Swift  to  Pope,  Let.  Ixxiv. 

4  O  Liberty,  thou  GoddefsAww#»(j-  bright.'  Addifon. 

The  term-it:,  utiou/y,  being  a  contraction  of  like,  c,~x.r>icfit$fimilitude 
or  manner ;  and  being  added  to  nouns,  forms  adjectives;  and 
added  to  adjectives,  forms  adverbs.  B  lit  ad  verbs  exprefling/w/V 
liiuJt  or  maangrt  cannot  be  i'o  formed  from  nouns:  the  few 
adverbs,  that  are  fo  formed,  have  a  very  different  import  :  as, 
daily ,  year/y,  that  is,  day  by  day,  year  by  year.  E:rlyt  both 
adjective;  and  ..('vr:).  is  formed  from  the  Saxon  prepofition  <2?r, 
before.  The  udverbe  therefore  above  noted  are  not  agreeable  to 
the  analogy  oi  formation  eftahlifhed  in  our  language,  which 
requires  goJlily,  ungodlily,  heavtnlily  :  but  thefe  are  rlilagreeable  to 
the  ear,  and  therefore  could  never  gain  admittance  into  conimpn 
ufe* 

The  word  lively  ufed  as  an  adverb,  inftead  of  liwlily  is  liable 
to  the  fame  objection  i  and,  not  being  fo  familiar  to  the  ear,  im 
mediately  offends  it.  '  That  part  of  poetry  muft  needs  be  beft, 
which  defcribes  moft  lively  our  actions  and  pafi!on,s,  our  virtues 
and  our  vices.'  Dryderj,  Pref.  to  State  of  Innocence.  *  Thq 
whole  dcfign  mud  refer  to  the  golden  age,  which  it  lively  repre- 
fents.'  Addifoa,  on  Medals.  Dial.  II. 

On  th<c  other  hand.,  an  udverb  is  improperly  tifed  is  an  adjeclive 
in  the  rdio'.ving  paffages.  '  We  may  cait  in  fuch  feeds  andprin- 
riples  aa  -•  e  j'idge  moft  likely  to  take  fion-.Jl  and  deepeft  root.* 
ctlo:;,  V<J  I  Serm.ja.  '  afttr  thcfc  wars,  of  which  they 
.  •  v:l  profperous  iffue.  Sidney.  '  Ufe  a  little  wine 
lac)  '  .  and  thine  often  infirmities.'  i  Tim.v. 

"*.|  Unl<  i  j::o.-!  iujr-  ,jf>tn  were  formerly  adjeclives,  though  now 
wholly  obfolett  in  t,h,.c  form,  Scq  johnfou'b  Dictionary;  often* 


24  INTRODUCTION  TO 

or  fupplies  its  place  j  being  prefixed  to  another 
fubftantive,  and  linked  to  it  by  a  mark  of  conjunc 
tion  :  as,  "Tea-water  5 -lancUtortoife  ;  foreft-tree." 
ADVERBS  have  no  government.  [6] 
The  Adverb,  as  its  name  imports,,  is  generally- 
placed  clofe  or  near  to  the  word,  v  which  it  modifies 
or  affects  ;  and  its  propriety  and  force  depend  on 
its  pofition.  [7]  Its  place  for  the  mod  part  is 
before  adjectives  ;  after  verbs  a£Hve  or  neuter  ^ 
and  it  frequently  (lands  between  the  auxiliary  and 
the  verb  :  as,  "  He  made  a  very  elegant  harangue  -7 
\\tfpake  unaffectedly  zn&  forcibly  ;  and  was  atten 
tively  heard  by  the  whole  audience." 

Two  negatives  in  Englith  deftroy  one  another, 
or  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  :  [8]  as,  , 

Nor 

[6]  '  Koiv-mitcl  foever  the  reformation  of  thfs  corrupt  and  de« 
generate  age  is  almoji  utterly  to  be  defpaired  of,  we  may  yet  have 
a  more  comfortable  proipe<ft  of  future  times.'  Tillotfon,!.  Pref. 
to  Serm.  49.  The  firft  part  of  this  Ten tence  abounds  with  ad 
verbs,  and  thofe  fuch,  as  are  hardly  confident  with, one  another. 
[7]  Thus  it  is  commonly  faid,  '  [  only  fpakc  three  words:  wht;n 
the  intention  of  the  fpeaker  manifeftly  requires, •'  I  fpake  only 
three  words.' 

'  Her  body  {haded  with  a  flight  cymarr,- 
Her  bofom  to  the  view  was  vnly  bare." 

Dryden,  Cymon  and  Iphig* 
The  fcnfe'necefiarijy  recjuires  this  order, 

'   Her  bofom  only  to  the  view  was  bare." 
[8]  The  following  are  examples  of  the  contrary  :  • 

'  Give  not  me  counlel ; 
Net-  let  no  comforter  delight  mine  ear. '• 

Shukefpear,  Much  ado.- 
*  She  cannot  love, 

Nor  take  no  {hape  nor  project  of  affeAion.'  Ibid. 

Shakefpear  ufes  this  conflrudlion  frequently.  It  is  a  relique  of 
the  ancient  ftyle,  abounding  .with  negatives:  which  is  now  grown 
wholly  obfolcte  :  . 


E.NGLISH  GRAMMA'R.  95 

*  Nor  did  they  not  perceive  the  evil  plight 

In  which  they  were,  or  the  fierce  pains  not  feel/ 
Milton,  P.  L.  i.  335* 

PREPOSITIONS  have  a  .government  of  cafes  ; 
and  in  English  they  always  require  the  objective 
cafe  after  them. :  -as,  with  him ;  from  her ;  to 
me.  [9] 

The  prepofition  is  often  -fepara  ted  ^  from  the 
relative  which  it  governs,  and  joined  to  the  verb 
at  the  end  of  the  fentence,  or  of  fome  member  of 
it  :  as,  "  Horace  is  an  author,  whom.  I  am  much 
delighted  with?  "  The  [i]  world  is  too  well- 
bred,  to  mock  authors  with  a  truth,  which  gene 
rally  their  bookfellers  are  the  firll  that  inform  them 
of"  This  is  an  idiom,  which  our  language  is 
itrongly  inclined  to  :  it  prevails  in  common  con- 
verfation,  and  fuits  very  well  with. the  familiar 

ftyle 

'  And  of  his  port  as  meke  as  is  a  maid, 
He  never  yet  no  villainy  ne  faid 
In  all  hi*  life  unto  no  manner  wight : 

He  was  a  very  parfit  gentil  knight,'  Chaucer. 

'  I  cannot  by  no  means  allow  him,  that  this  argument  muft  prove.' 
Bentley,  DiiTcrt.  on  Phalaris,  p.  515.  'That  we  need  not,  «cr 
do  not,  confine  the  purpcies  of  God.'  Id.  Sermon  8. 

[9]  '  Who  fcrveft  thou  under?'  Shakefpear,  Hen.  V. 

'  Who  do  you.Ipeak  to?'  As  you  like  it. 

*  111  tell  you,  ivhv  time  ambles  withal^  -who  time  trots  -withal 
<wbo  time  gallops  ivithal,  -and  ivho  hi.  H  :nds  ftill  tvit&a!.' 

4   I  pr'ythee,  •wlom  doth  he  trot  lullbat?'  Ihid. 

*  We  are  ftill -much  at  a  lois,  -who  civil  power  belongs  to,' 

.Locke* 
In  all  thefe  places,  it  ought  to  be  -whom. 

*  Now  Margaret's  curie  is  fall'n  upon  our  heads, 
When  fhe  exclaini'd  on  Huftings,  you,  and  /.' 

Shakefpear,  Rich.  Ill, 
It  ought  to  be  me. 

£ij  Pope,  Preface  to  his  poems. 


96  INTRODUCTION  TO 

flyle  in  writing  :  but  the  placing  of  the  prepofitioh 
before  the  relative,  is  more  graceful,  as  well  as 
more  perfpicuous  j  and  agrees  much  better  with 
the  folemn  and  elevated  ftyle.  [2] 

Verbs  are  often  compounded  of  a  verb  and  a 
prepofition  ;  as>  to  uphold,  to  outweigh,  to  overlook: 
and  this  compofition  fometimes  gives  a  new  fenfe 
to  the  verb  ;  as,  to  understand,  to  withdraw,  to 
forgive*  [3]  But  in  Englifh  the  prepofition  is 
more  frequently  placed  after  the  verb,  and  feparate 
from  it,  like  an  adverb ;  in  which  fituation  it  is 
no  Jefs  apt  to  affeft  the  fenfe  of  it,  and  to  give  it 
a  new  meaning  *y  and  may  ftili  be  confidered  as 
belonging  to  the  verb,  and  as  a  part  of  it.  As, 
to  cafl  is,  to  throw ;  but  to  caft  up,  or  to  compute 
an  account,  is  quite  a  different  thing:  thus,  to  fail 
on,  to  bear  cut,  to  give  over,  &c.  So  that  the 
meaning  of  the  verb,  and  the  propriety  of  the 
phrafe,  depend  on  the  prepofition  fubjoined.  [4] 

As 

[l]  Some  writers  feparate  the  prepofition  from  its  noun,  in  or 
der  to  connect  different  prcpofitions  with  the  fame  noun  ;  as, 
*  To  fuppofe  the  zodiac  and  planets  to  be  efficient  of,  and  ante 
cedent  to,  themfelves.'  Betuley,  Serm.  6.  Thus,  whether  in  the 
familiar  or  the  folemn  ftyle,  is  always  inelegant;  and  fhould  ne 
ver  be  admitted,  but  in  forms  of  law,  and  the  like  ;  where  fulnefs 
and  exa<5tnefs  of  expreflion  muft  take  place  of  every  other  confi- 
deration 

[3]  With  in  compofition  retains  the  fignification  which  it  has 
among  others  in  the  Saxon,  of  from  and  aga'tnjl:  as,  to  withhold, 
to  ivithjland.  So  alfo  for  has  a  negative  fignification  from  the 
Saxon:  •&&,  \.Q  forbid ,  forbeodan  \  to  forget,  forgitan. 

[4]  Examples  of  impropriety  in  the  ufe  of  the  prepofition,  in 
phrafes  of  this  kind.  '  Your  character,  which  I,  or  any  other 
writer,  may  now  value  ourfclves  by  (upon)  drawing.'  Swift, 

Letter 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  97 

As  the  prepcfition  fubjoined  to  the  verb  hath 

the  contraction  and   nature  of  an  adverb,   fo  the 

K  adverbs 


Letter  on  the  Englifh  Tongue.  *  You  have  beflowed  your  favors 
to  (upon)  the  mo  ft  deferring  perfons.'  Ibid.  *  Upon  fuch  occa- 
fions  as  fell  into  (under)  their  cognizance.'  Swift,  Contefts  and 
Diflenlions,  &<c.  chap.  ii.  '  Thut  variety  of  factions  into  (in) 
which  \ve  are  iYill  engaged.'  Ibid.  chap.  v.  '  To  reftore  my- 
ielf  into  (to)  the  good  graces  of  my  fair  critics.'  Dryden's  Prof, 
to  Aureng.  '  Acculed  the  minifters  ftr  (of)  betraying  the 
Dutch.'  Swift,  Four  iail  years  of  the  Queen,  Book  ii.  '  Ovid, 
whom  you  accufe  for  (of)  luxuriancy  of  verfe.'  Drydcn,  on 
Dram.  Poefy.  '  The  people  of  England  may  congratulate  to  thcrn- 

felves,  that ,'     Dryden.      'Something  like  this,    has  been 

reproached  to  Tacitus.'      Boungbroke  on   Hiftory,  Vol.    I.  p. 
136.     *  He  was  made  much  on  (of)  at  Argos.' — '  tie  is  rcfolved 
cf  (ojti)  going  to  the  Periian  court.'     Bentlcy,  Differt.  on  The- 
miftocles's  Epiftles,  Se6t.  iii.     *  Neither,   the  one  nor  the  other 
ihall  make  me  fwerve  out  c/(from)  the  path,  which  1  have  traced 
to  nryfeif.'     Bolingbroke,  Letter  to  \Vyndham,  p.  2-52. 
'  And  virgins  fiv.il'd  at  what  they  blufh'd  before  :' 
what  they  bluih'd.  (at)  Pope,  Effay  en  Crit. 

'  They  are  now  reconciled  by  a  zeal  for  their  caufe,  to  what  they 
could  not  be  prompted  (to)  by  a  concern  for  their  beauty,'  Ad 
difon,  Sped:.  No.  8l.  '  If  policy  can  prevail  upon  (over)  force.' 
Addifon,  Travels,  p.  62.  'I  dolike-vvife  diffent  ivitb  (from)  the 
Examiner.'  Addifon,  Whig  Ex-im.  No.  j.  '  Ye  blind  guides, 
which  ilrain  ai  a  gnat,  and  iwallovv  a  camel.'  Matt,  xxiii.  24. 
*  Which  ilrain  out,  or  take  a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor  Ly  llraining; 
it:'  the  impropriety  of  the  prepofition  has  wholly  cltilroyed  the 
meaning  of  the  phrafe.  Obferve  alfo,  that  the  noun  generally 
requires  after  it,  the  fame  prepofition,  as  the  verb  from  which  it 
is  formed  :  '  It  was  perfectly  in  compliance  to  (with)  fome  per- 
fon,  for  whofe  opinion  I  have  great  deference.'  Swift,  Preface 
to  Temple's  Memoirs.  '  Not  i'rom  any  perfonal  hatred  to  them, 
but  in  juflification  to  (of)  the  belt  of  Queens.'  Swift,  Examiner, 
No.  23.  In  the  laft  example,  the  verb  being  traufitive,  and 
requiring  the  cbjtclive  cafe,  the  noun  formed  from  it,  feems  to 
require  the  pofftffive  cafe,  or  its  prepofition  after  it.  Or  perhaps 
be  meant  to  fay,  *  In  jujiice  to  the  bell  of  Queen-.'  *  The  wifeft 
Princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution  to  (of)  their  greatnelV, 
or  derogation  to  (from)  their  fufficiency,  to  rely  upon  council.' 
Bacon,  Eff^y  xx.  *  No  Uifcouragement  for  the  authors  to  pro 
ceed.'  Tale  of  a  Tub,  Prof.  1A  ilrid  obfervance  after  ti;nc> 


98  FNTRODUCTION  TO 

adverbs  here,  there,  where,  with  a  prepofuion  fub- 
joined,  as  hereof,  therewith,  whereupon,  [5!  have 
the  conflruftion  and  nature  of  pronouns. 

The  prepolitions  to  and/cr  are  often  underftood 
chiefly  before  the  pronoun  ;  as,  "  give  me  the 
book  *,  get  me  fome  paper  ;"  that  is,  to  me,  for  me. 
161  The 

and  fafhions.'  Ibid.  Seel  ii.  «  Which  had  a  much  greater  (hare 
6/'  inciting  him,  than  any  regards  after  his  father's  commands.' 
Ibid.  Seel  vi.  So  the  noun  avtr/to/i,  (that  is,  a  turning  away; 
as  likewife  the  adjcclive  awrfe,  feems  to  require  the  prepofition 
from  after  it  ;  and  not  fo  properly  to  admit  of  to,  or  for,  which 
are  often  ufed  with  it. 

[5]  Thefe  are  much  difufed  in  common  difcourfe,  and  are 
retained  only  in  the  fokmn,  or  formulary  ftyle.  '  They  (our 
authors)  have  of  late,  'tis  true,  reformed  in  lame  meafure  the 
gouty  joints,  and  darning  works  of  loht-reunto's,  whereby*,  tlcre- 
of's,  therewith'*  s,  and  the  reft  of  this  kind  ;  by  which  complicated 
periods  are  fo  curioufly  ftrong,  or  hooked  on,  one  to  another, 
after  the  longfpun  manner  of  the  bar  or  pwlpit.'  Lord  Shaftef- 
bury,  Milcel.  V. 

«  Fra  fdie  ibir  \vourdishad  fayd.'        Gawin  Douglas,  JEn.  x. 

*  Thir  \vikkit  fchrewis.  Ibid.  ./En.  xii. 

'1'hat  is,  '  ihefc  words;  tljeft  wicked  fh re ws.'  '  Tbcyr,  tbefc,  or 
ibafe,  mafculine ;  thazr*  tbefe,  or  t/jofct  feminine  '  Iffandick. 
Hence,  perhaps,  thereof,  therewith,  &c.  of,  with  tbem  \  and  ib, 
by  analogy,  the  reft  of  this  clafs  of  words. 

[6J  Or  in  thefe  and  the  like  phrafls,  may  not  me,  tint,  bi/n, 
her,  us,  which  in  Saxon,  are  the  dative  cafes  of  their  refpL'clive 
pronouns,  be  considered  as  ftill  continuing  iuch  in  the  iinglifh, 
and  including  in  their  very  form  the  force  of  the  prepolitions 
to  zudfor  ?  There  are  certainly  fome  other  phrafes,  which  are 
to  be  refolved  in  this  manner  :  *  Wo  is  me  /'  The  phrafe  is  pure 
Saxon  :  Wa  is  me  :'  me  is  the  dative  cafe  :  in  Englifh,  with  the 
prcpofition,  to  me*  So,  '  metbints  ;'  Saxon,  '  me  tbinctb*  '  As 
us  tloughte ;'  Sir  John  Maundevylle.  '  Metbouvbh,  this  fhort 
interval  of  fiience  has  had  more  mufic  in  it,  than  any  of  the 
fame  fnace  of  time  before  or  after  it.'  Addifon,  Tatler,  No. 
133.  Seealfo  Spect.  No.  63.  It  ought  to  be,  vtttbeugit.  'The 
.Lord  do  that,  which  faemetb  him  good.'  i.  Sam,  x.  12.  See 
alfo,  I  Sam.  iii.  18,  2  Sam  xviii.  4.  '  O  well  is  -.bee!*  Pfal. 
sxxviii.  a.  *  Wd  his  tl>et  id  elt,  bene  eft  tibi.'  Simeon  Dnn- 

eim, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  99 

The  prepofition  in  or  ctiy  is  of^en  underftood 
before  nouns  exprefFmg  time  ;  as,  this  day ;  next 
month;  laft  year ;  that  is,  "  en  this  day  j"  "in 
next  month  j"  "  in  lad  year." 

In  poetry,  the  common  order  of  words  is  fre 
quently  inverted  ;  in  all  ways,  in  which  it  may  be 
done  without  ambiguity  or  obfcurity. 

Two  or  more  funple  fentences,  joined  together 
by  one  or  more  connective  words,  become  a  com 
pounded  fentence. 

There  are  two  forts  of  words,  which  connect 
fentences.  I.  relatives;  2.  conjunctions. 

Examples:  I.  "  IlleiTed  is  the  man,  ivlo  fear- 
eth  the  Lord."  2.  u  Life  is  fliort,  Wart  is  l0ng?*J 
I.  and  2.  "  Blefled  is  tlie  man,  who  fcaretli  Lf;c 
Lord,  and  keepeth  his  commandments." 

The  relatives  ivho,  which  ^  //\7/,  having  no  va 
riation  of  gender  or  number,  cannot  but  agree 
with  their  antecedents.  Who  is  appropriated  to 
perfons;  and  fo  may  be  accounted  mafcuiine  and 
feminine  only  :  we  apply  which  now  to  things 
only  :  and  to  irrational  animals,  excluding  them 

from 

elm.  apud  X.  fkriptores,  col.  1^5-  <  Wei  is  mm  that  ther  mal 
be.'  Anglo-Saxon  Poem  in  Hickes's  Thefaur.  Vol.  I.  p.  a?i. 
'  Well  is  b'tm  that  dvvelleth  with  a  wife  of  undcrftanding.'  — 
'  Well  is  him  that  hath  found  prudence.'  Eccius.  xxv.  8,  y. 
The  tranllator  thought  to  correcl  his  phrafe  afterward ;  and  io 
hath  made  it  neither  Saxon  nor  Englifti  :  '  Well  is  he^  that  i« 
defended  from  it.'  Eccius  xxxviii.  i<;.  *  Wo  worth  the  day  !' 
Kzek.  xxx;  2.  that  is.  Wo  be  to  the  day.  The  word  worth  is 
not  the  adjeclive,  but  the  Saxon  verb  wsorthan,  or  ivoitban,  fieri, 
toh-t  iolecome;  which  is  often  ufed  hy  Chaucer,  and  is  frill  rc- 
f-.amed  JIR  an  auxiliary  v<;ih  in  the  German  lirtguage. 


ico  INTRODUCTION  TO 

from  perfonality,  without  any  confideration  of  fex : 
which  therefore  may  be  accounted  neuter.  But 
formerly  they  were  both  indifferently  ufed  of  per- 
fons  :  "  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven."  That 
is  ufed  indifferently  both  of  perfons  and  things  : 
but  perhaps  would  be  more  properly  confined  to 
the  latter.  What  includes  both  the  antecedent 
and  the  relative  :  as,  "  This  was  what  he  wanted  j" 
that  is,  "  the  thing  which  he  wanted.  [7] 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  cafe  to  the  verb, 
when  no  other  nominative  comes  between  it  and 
the  verb  :  but  when  another  nominative  comes 
between  it  and  the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed 
by  fome  v?ord  in  its  own  member  of  the  fentence  : 
as,  "  The  God,  who  preferveth  me  ;  ivbofe  I  am, 
and  'lukom  I  ferve."  [8]  Every 

[7]  That  hath  been  ufed  in  the  fame  manner  as  including  the 
relative  -w h icb ;  but  it  is  either  improper,  or  obfolcte :  as,  'To 
ccnfider  advifedly  of  tb-zt  is  moved.'  Bacon,  Effty  xxii.  '  We 
fpeak  tlat  we  do  know,  and  tdlify  that  we  have  feen.'  John 
'iii.  ir.  So  likewife  the  neuter  pronoun  it :  as,  '  By  this  alfo,  a 
man  may  unclerftand,  when  it  is,  that  .men  may  be  faid  to  be 
conquered  ;  and  in  what  the  nature  of  conqueft  and  the  right 
©f  a  conqueror  confifteth  :  for  this  fubmitlion  is  /'/  (that  which) 
implyeth  them  all.'  Hobbes,  Leviathan,  Couclufion.  "And 
this  is  it  (that  which)  men  mean  by  diflributive  juftice,  and 
.(which)  is  properly  termed  equity.'  Hobbes,  Elements  of  Law, 
Part  I,  chap.  iv.  2. 

[8]  '  H'&o,  inftead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpe 
tually  intent  upon  doing  mifchief.'  Tillotfon,  Serm.  I.  18.  The 
nominative  cale  they  in  this  fentence  is  fuperfiuous  :  it  was  ex- 
prefled  before  in  the  relative  iybo.  '  Commend  me  to  an  argument 
:.6a/,  like  a  flail,  there's  no  fence  againft  it*  Bentley,  Differt. 
on  Euripedes's  EpilUes,  fe6l.  i.  If  that  be  defigncd  by  the  rela 
tive,  it  ought  to  be  ivhub^  governed  by  the  prepofition  agantji^ 
and  it  is  fuperfluoi^:  thus,  '  aga'mjl  which  there  is  no  fence  :'  [>ut 
it  that  be  a  conjunction,  it  ought  to  he  in  the  preceding  member, 
•  fuck  an  argument.' 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  101 

Every  relative  mull  have  an  antecedent  to 
•which  it  refers,  either  exprefTed,  or  understood  : 
as,  "  Who  (teals  my  purfe,  deals  trafn  ::)  that  is, 
the  many  who — 

The  relative  is  of  the  fame  perfon  with  the  ante 
cedent:  and  the  verb  agrees  with  it  accordingly: 
as,  "  "Who  is  thist  that  cometh  from  Edom  j  -this9 
that  is  glorious  in  his  apparel  ? — 7,  that  f peak  in 
righteoufnefs."  Ifaiah,  Ixiii.  i.  "  O  Shepherd 
of-  Ifrael ;  Thou,  that  leadejl  Jofeph  like  a  flock  : 
Thbuy  that  dwelltjl  between  the  Cherubims."  Pfal. 
Ixxx.  i.  [9] . 

K  2,  When 


[9]  '  I  am  the  Lord,  tlat  maleth  all  things;  tint  pntJjcth  forth 
the  heavens  alone  :'  Ifaiah,  :div.  24.  Thus  fr.r  is  right.  :  lie 
Lord'm  the  third  perfon  is  the  antecedent,  and  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  relative  in  the  third  perfon  :  '  I  am  the  Lord,  ivhich 
Lord,  or  Hx  that,  maksth  all  things.'  Ic-would  have  been  equally 
right,  if/  hud  been  made  the  antecedent,  and  the  relative  and 
the  verb  had  agreed  with  it  in  the  firfl  perfon  :  /  am  the  Lord, 
that  make  all  'things.'  But  vthen  it  follows,  '  that  fin-add  b  abroad 
the  earth  by  myjelfj  there  urifes  a  confufion  of  perfons,  and  a 
rnanifeO.  fulecifrn. 

'  Thou  great  firfl  caufe,  lead  underdood ! 
Wbo  all  my  fenfe  lonfind 

To  know  but  this,   that  Thou  art  good, 
And  that  myfe.f  am  blind  : 

"Yet gave  me  in  this  dark  eftate,.  &.c.'  Pope,  Unu  Prayer. 

It  -ought  to  be,  cojiji;ieiijl >  or  JUIjl  t&nfutc:  gavsjl,  or  di'Jjl  give: ;    &.C. 
in  the  fccond  perfon. 

'  O  Th(,u  fuprcme  !  high  thron'd  all  height  above  ! 

0  great  Pclafgic,   Dodonean  Jov;- ! 

Who  'midi:  furrounding  frulis,  and  vapours  thiil, 
]? refute  on  ble'..k.  Dodona's  voral  iull!' 

Pope,  !ii  id,  xvi.  284. 

1  Nor  tho.  ipc  : 


fez  INTRODUCTION  TO 

When   this,  thai,  tbtfe,  thofe,  refer   to  a   pre 
ceding  ientcnce  ;   this,  cr  theft,  refers  to  the  latter 
member  or  term  ;  that,  or  thofe,  to  the  former :  as, 
Self-love,   the  fpring  of  motion,  adls  the  foul ; 
Reafoifs  comparing  balance,  rules  the  whole  : 
Man,  but  for  that  no  aclion  could  attend  ; 
And,  but  for  this,   were  aclive  to  no  end." 

Pope,  Effay  on  Man. 

"  Some  place  the  blifs  in  action,  fame  in  eafe  : 
Thofe  call  it  pleafure,   and  contentment  theft" 

Ibid. 

The  relative  is  often  underflcod,   or  omitted  : 
as,  "  The  man  I  love  j"  that  is,  "  whom  I  love."  [0 

The 

Yet  than  cculdfl  tamely  ice  rus  flain: 

Nor  when  1  felt  the  dreadful  blow. 

Or  chid  the  dean,   or  pimh'd  thy  fpoufc.' 

Swift,  Market-hill  Thorn. 
See  above  p.  46,  Note. 

[t]  '  Abafe  on  all  he  lov'd,  or  lovYi  him,  fpread.' 

Pope,  EpiiL  to  Arbuthnot. 

That  is,  '  all  tvavm  he  lov'd,  or  ivbo  lov'd  him  :'  or  to  make 
it  more  eafy  by  fupplying  a  relative,  that  has  no  variation  of  cafes, 
*  all  that  he  lov'd,  or-tLit  lov'd  him.'  The  conftruclion  is  ha 
zardous,  and  hardly  juftifiable,  even  in  poetry.  *  In  the  temper 
of  mind  he  was  then.'  Addifon,  Sped.  No  549.  '  In  the  pollure 
J  lay.'  Swift,  Gulliver,  Part  I.  chap.  i.  In  thefe  and  the  like 
phrafes,  which  are  very  common,  there  is  an  elipfis  both  of  the 
relative  and  the  prepofition  ;  which  would  have  been  much  bet 
ter  fupplied:  *  In  the  temper  of  mind  in  which  he  was  then  :'  *  In 
the  pofture  hi  ivh'uh  \  lay.'  «  The  little  fatisfacrion  and  confilt- 
ency  (which)  is  to  be  found  in  mod  of  the  fyilercs  of  divinity 
(which)  I  have  met  with,  made  me  betake  myfelf  to  the  fole 
reading  of  the  ^cripture>  (to  which  they  all  appeal)  for  the  un- 
derflanding  (of)  the  Chriftian  religion.'  Lotke,  Preface  to  the 
Reafenablenefs  of  Chriftianity.  In  the  following  example,  the 
antecedent  is  omitted :  «  He  defired  they  might  ^o  to  the  altar 
together^  and  jointly  return  their  thanks  to  ivhom  only  it  was  due.* 
Addifon,  FreehoUitr*  No,  49,  In  general,  the  onuilion  of  the 

relative 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  103 

The  accuracy  and  clearnefs  of  the  fentence.  de 
pend  very  much  upon  the  proper  and  determinate 
ufe  of  the  relative  ;  fo  that  it  may  readily  prefent 
its  antecedent  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer,  or  reader, 
without  any  obicurity  or  ambiguity.  The  fame 
may  be  obfervred  of  the  pronoun  and  the  noun ; 
which  by  fome  are  called  alfo  the  relative  and  the 
antecedent.  [2] 

CONJUNCTIONS 


relative  feems  to  be  too  much  indulged  in  the  familiar  flyle;  it  is 
ungraceful  in  the  folemn  ;  and,  of  whatever  kind  the  ft)le  be, 
it  is  apt  to  be  attended  with  obicurity  and  ambiguity. 

[2]  The  conneclive  parts  of  fentences  are  the  mod  important 
of  all,  and  require  the  greateft  cnre  and  attention  :  for  it  is  by 
thefe  chiefly,  that  the  train  of  thought,  the  courfe  of  reafoning, 
and  the  whole  progrefs  of  the  mind,  in  continued  difcourfe  of 
all  kinds,  is  laid  open  ;  and  on  the  right  ufe  of  thde,  the  per- 
fpicuity,  that  is,  the  firft  and  gre:>.reft  beauty  of  ityle,  principally 
depends.  Relatives  and  conjunctions,  are  the  inftruments  of 
connection  in  difcourfe  :  It  may  be  of  ufe  to  point  out  fome  of 
the  mo  ft  common  inaccuracies,  that  writers  are  apt  to  fall  into 
•with  refpecl:  to  them,  and  a  few  examples  of  faults,  may  per 
haps  be  more  inflruclive,  than  any  rules  of  propriety  that  can  be 
given.  Here  therefore  fhall  be  added  fome  further  examples  of 
inaccuracies  in  the  ufe  of  relatives. 

The  relative  placed  before  the  antecedent;  Example:  'The 
bodies,  which  we  daily  handle,  makes  us  perceive,  that  whilft 
they  remain  between  them,  they  do  by  an  unfnrmourtable  force 
hinder  the  approach  of  our  lands  that  prtfs  them.'  Locke, 
EiTay,  B.  ii.  C.  4,  Se&.  i.  Here  the  ftnfc  it  fufpended,  and 
the  fentence  is  unintelligible,  till  you  get  to  the  end  of  it :  there 
is  no  antecedent,  to  which  the  relative  them  can  be  referred,  but 
bodies  ;  but, '  whilft  the  bodies  remain  between  the  bodies,1  makes 
no  fenfe  at  all  When  you  get  to  bands,  the  difficulty  is  cleared 
up,  the  fenfe  helping  out  the  conilruclion.  Yet  there  ftill  remains 
an  ambiguity  in  the  relatives  they^  them,  which  in  number  and 
perfon,  are  equally  applicable  to  bodies  or  hands  \  this,  though  it 
may  not  here  be  the  occafion  of  much  obfcurity,  \vhich  is  com 
monly  the  efTecl:  of  it,  yet  is  always  difagreeable  and  inelegant ; 
as  in  the  following  examples : 

«  Men 


io4  INTRODUCTION  TO 

CONJUNCTIONS  have  fometimes  a  government 
of  modes.  Some  conjunctions  require  the  indica* 
tive,  fome  the  fubjunclive  mode  after  them  : 
others  have  no  influence  at  all  upon  the  mode. 

Hypothetical,  conditional,  conceflive,  and  ex 
ceptive  conjunctions  feem  in  general  to  require  the 

fubjunftive 

'  Men.  look  with  an  evileye,  upon  the  good  that  is  in-othcrs ; 
r.ncl  flunk,  that  their  reputation  obfcures  them  ;  and  that  their 
commendable  qualities  do  ftand  in  thalr  light,  and  therefore  they 
do  what  tbsy  can  to  caft  a  cloud  over  fieri;,  that  the  bright  fain^ 
ings  of .  thdr  virtues,  may  not  obfcure  tttm.'  T-iiiotfun,  tierm. 
I.  41. 

'  The  Earl  of  Falmouth  and  Mr.  Coventry,  were  rivals  ti'Lo 
fhould  have  mod  influence  with  the  Duke,  ii^bo  loved  the  Earl 
beft,  hut  thought  the  other  the  wifer  man,  tc/jo  fupportcd  Pen; 
iv  Lo  difobliged  ail  the  courtiers,  even  againft  the  Earl,  tilo 
contemned  Pen,  as  a  fellow  of  no  feufe.'  Clarendon,  Cont.  p.- 
^64. 

But  the  following  fentcnce  cannot  be  poffibly  underflood, 
without  a  careful  recolleclion  of  circuraftantrea,  through  feme. 
p  iges  preceding. 

«  All  which,  with  the  King's  and  Queen's  fo  ample  promifes 
to  aim  (the  Treasurer)  fo  few  hours  before  the  conferring1  the 
place  on  another,  and  the  Duke  of  York's  manner  of  receiving 
him  (the  Treafurer)  after  le  (the  Chancellor)  had  been  ihnt  up 
with  him.,  (the  Duke)  as  It  (the  Treafurer)  was  informed,  might 
very  well  excufe  him  (the  Treafurer)  for  thinking  Le  (the  Chan 
cellor)  had  feme  fhare  in  the  affront  he  (the  Treafurer)  had  un 
dergone.'  Clarendon,  Cont.  p.  296. 

4  Breaking  a  cenftitytion  by  the  very  fame  errors,  that  foinany 
have  been  broke  before.*  Swift,  Contefts  and  Diffentiot:?,  £c. 
chap,  5.  Kcre  the  relative  is  employed  not  <".;•' !y  to  reprefent 
the  antecedent  noun  the  errors,  but  likewifc  the  prepofition  by 
pr>  fixed  to  it  It  ought  to  be,  «  the  fame  errors  by  ivl'icl  fo 
many  have  been  LrnLcn  before.' 

Again:    ' An    undertaking    tAiibt    although  it   has 

failed,   (partly,   -.9:  ••  '   n  at  all,  to 

rfH  i:-r  (o  w  ro         lity  of 

'     Swift,  i 

is ;;-  obreclioa at  sUl  to  it.' 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  105 

fubjuntHve  mode  after  them  :  as,  if,  though,  un- 
lefs,  except^  whether,  or,  &c.  but  by  ufe  they 
often  admit  of  the  indicative  ;  and  in  feme  cafes 
with  propriety.  Examples:  "  Tfthou  be  the  Son 
of  God."  Matth.  iv.  3.  "  Though  \\zjlay  me,  yet 
will  I  put  my  trufl  in  him."  Job,  xiii.  15.  "  Un- 
lefs  he  voa/h  his  flefh."  Lev.  xxii.  6.  No  power, 
except  it  were  given  from  above."  John,  xix.  II. 
"  Whether  it  ivere  \  or  they,  fo  we  preach."  I 
Cor.  xv.  ii.  The  fubjun£live  in  thefe  "inftances 
implies  fornething  contingent  or  doubtful  ,  the 
indicative  would  exprefs  a  more  abfolute  and  de 
terminate  fenfe.'fjj 


[3]  The  following  example  may  ferve  to  illuftrate  this  obferva.- 
tion  :  '  Though  he  ivere  divinely  infpired,  and  fp;ike  therefore  as 
the  oracles  of  God,  with  fupreme  authority;  though  he  ivere  en 
dued  with  fupernatural  powers,  and  could  therefore  have  con 
firmed  the  truth  of  what  he  uttered  by  miracles;  yet  in  compli 
ance  with  the  way  in  which  human  nature  and  reafonable  crea 
tures  are  ufually  wrought  upon,  he  reafoned.'  .Atterbury,  Ser 
mon  IV.  5. 

That  our  Saviour  was  divinely  infpired,  and  endued  with  fa- 
pernatunil  powers,  are  pofitions,  that  are  here  taken  for  granted, 
as  not  admitting  of  the  leaft  doubt;  they  would  therefore  have 
been  better  expreffed  in  the  indicative  movie  ;  though  he  tuas  di 
vinely  infpired;  though  he  mas  endowed  with  fupernatural  pow 
ers.'  The  fubjunctive  is  ufcd  in  like  manner  in  the  following  ex 
ample  :  '  Though  lie  ivere  a  Ion,  yet  learned  he  obedience,  by  the 
things  which  he  fuffered  '  Heb.  v.  3.  Cut  in  a  limilar  paffaye 
the  indicative  is  employed  to  the  fame  purpofe,  and  that  much 
more  properly:  '  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  tor  your  fakes  he  be 
came  poor.'  z  Cor.  viii.  9.  The  proper  ufe  then  of  the  fubjunc 
tive  mode  after  the  conjunction,  is  in  the  cafe  of  a  doubtful  fup- 
pofition  or  conceflion;  as,  '  Though  \\efall,  he  fhall  not  be  utterly 
caft  down.'  Pfal.  xxxvii.  24.  And  much  the  fame  may  be  faid 
of  the  reft. 

The  fame  conjunction  governing  both  the  indicative,  and  the 
fubjunctive  mode  in  the  iarncfer.lcnce,  and,  in  the  fame  cjrcum- 

ftar.ccs, 


io6  INTRODUCTION  TO 


exprefling  the  motive  or  end,  has  the 
fubjunclive  mode  with  tnay,  might,  Jlould,  after  it. 

Left  ;  and  that  annexed  to  a  command  preced 
ing;  and  if  with  but  following  it  ;  neceflLrily 
require  the  fubjundive  mode;  Examples  :  "  Let 
him  that  ftandeth,  take  heed,  left  he  fall."  i  Cor. 
x.  12.  Take  heed,  that  tiisufpeak  not  to  Jacob." 
Gen.  xxxi.  24.  "  If  he  do  but  touch  the  hills, 
they  (hall  fmoke."  Pial.  civ.  32.  [4] 

Other  conjunctions,  expreffing  a  continuation, 
an  addition,  an  inference,  &c.  being  of  a  pofitive 
and  abfolute  nature,  require  the  indicative  mode; 
or  rather  leave  the  mode  to  be  determined  by  the 
other  circumftances  and  conditions  of  the  fentence. 

When  the  qualities  of  different  things  are  com 
pared  ;  the  latter  noun  is  not  governed  by  the 
conjunction  thany  or  as,  (for  a  conjunction  -has 

no 

fiances,  though  either  of  them  feparately  would  be  right,  feems 
to  be  a  great  impropriety;  as, 

'   Though  heaven's  king 

JRlJe  on  thy  wings,  and  thnu  with  thy  compeers, 
Us'd  to  the  yoke,  draiv'ilft  his  triumphant  wheels 
In  progrefs  through  the  road  of  heav'n  (tar  pav'd.' 

Miltoa,  P.L.I  V.  97  j. 

'  Jf  there  be  but  one  body  of  legiflators,  it  is  no  better  than  a 
tyranny;  //"there  ate  only  two,  there  will  want  a  calling  voice*. 

Addifon,  Sped.  No.  z8;. 

[4]  In  the  following  iwftances,  the  conjunction  that,  exprcffcd 
or  underllood,  feems  to  be  improperly  accompanied  with  the  fub- 
j  unlive  mode. 

*  So  much  {he  fears  for  William's  life. 

That  Mary's  fate  {he  dare  not  mourn.'  Prior. 

'  Her  eyes  in  heaven, 

Would  through  the  airy  re^io;;  flream  fo  bright, 
The  birds  would  fing,  and  think  it  ivere  not  night.' 

Shakefpear,  Romeo  and  Juliet, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  107 

no  government  of  cafes,)  but  agrees  with  the  verb, 
or  is  governed  by  the  verb,  or  the  preppfition  ex- 
prefied,  or  underftood,  As,  "  Thou  art  wifer 
than  /  (am)."  "  You  are  not  fo  tall  as  /(am)." 
"  You  think  him  handfomer  than  (you  think)  me  ; 
and  love  him  more  than  (you  love)  me."  In  all 
other  inflances,  if  you  complete  the  fentence  in 
like  manner,  by  fupplying  the  part  which  is  un 
derftood  ;  the  cafe  of  the  latter  noun  will  be  de 
termined  thus.  "Plato  obferves,  that  God  geome- 
trizes  •,  and  the  fame  thing  was  obferved  before 
by  a  wifer  man  than  he :"  that  is,  than  he  ivas. 
"  It  was  well  exprefTed  by  Plato ;  but  more  ele 
gantly  by  Solomon  than  him  :"  that  is,  than  by 
him.  [5] 

But 

[5]  *  You  are  a  much  greater  lofer  than  me  by  his  death.' 

Swift  to  Pope,  Letter  63. 
c  And  though  by  heavVs  fevere  decree, 
She  lutfers  hourly  more  than  me*  Swift,  to  Stella. 

«  We  contributed  a  third  more  than  the  Dutch,  who  were  ob 
liged  to  the  fame  proportion  more  than  us 

Swift,  Canducl  of  the  Allies. 

*  King  Charles,  and  more  than  him,  the  Duke,  and  the  Popifh 
faction,  were  at  liberty  to  form  new  ichemes.'  Bolingbroke,  Dif- 
iertation  on  Parties,  Letter  3. 

'  The  drift  of  all  his  fermons  was,  to  prepare  the  Jews  for  the 
reception  of  a  prophet,  mightier  than  him,  and  whole  fhoes  he 
was  not  worthy  to  bear.'  Atterbury,  Sermons,  IV,  4 

1  A  poem,  which  is>  good  in  itfelf,  cannot  lofe  any  thing  of  its 
real  value  ;  though  it  fhould  appear  not  to  be  the  work  of  fo  emi 
nent  an  author,  as  him,  to  whom  it  was  firft  imputed.'  Congreve, 
Prcf.  to  Homer's  Hymn  to  Venus. 

*  A  {tone  is  heavy,  and  the  find  weighty  :  but  a  fool's  wrath  is 
heavier  than  them  both  '     Prov   xxvii.  3. 

'  If  the  king  gives  us  leave,  you  or  I  may  as  lawfully  preach, 
as  them  that  do.  Hobbes,  Hifh  of  Civil  Wars,  p.  62, 

v  *  The 

I 


Xo8  INTRODUCTION  TO 

But  the  relative  wfo,  having  reference  to  no 
verb  or  prepofition  uixkrilood,  but  only  to  its  an 
tecedent,  when  it  follows  than,  is  always  in  the 
objective  cafe  ;  even  though  the  pronoun,  if  fub- 
ftituted  in  its  place,  would  be  in  the  nominative:  as 

"  Beelzebub,   than  iuhomy 
Satan  except,   none  higher  fat." 

Milton,  P.  L.  ii.  299. 

which,  if  we  fubftitute  the  pronoun,  would  be, 
"  none  higher  fat,  than  be." 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  omitted  and  un- 
derftood  :  as,  "  I  beg  you  would  come  to  me  ;" 

See, 

*  The  fun  upon  the  calmcft  fcra 

Appears  not  half  ib  bright  as  //'«.'  Prior. 

«  Thenfinifh,  dear  Chloe,  this  padoral  war, 

And  let  us  like  Horace  and  Lydia  agree  : 
For  thou  art  a  girl  much  brighter  than  her, 

As  he  was  a  poet  iublimer  than  txe.'  Ibid. 

Phalaris,  who  was  fo  much  older  than  ker.*  Eentley,  DiiTert. 
on  Phalaris,  p.  537. 

In  thefe  paffagesit  ought  to  be,  /,  tve,  he,  they,  fbotiijbe,  re- 
fpeclively.  Perhaps  the  following  example  may  admit  of  a  doubt, 
whether  it  be  properly  expreffed  or  not : 

<  The  lover  got  a  woman  of  greater  fortune,  than  ler  he  had 
mifb'd.'  Addilon,  Guardian,  No.  97.  Let  us  try  it  by  the  rule 
fiven  above  ;  and  fee,  whether  lorne  correction  wiil  not  be  ne- 
i-.eflary,  when  the  parts  of  the  fentenee,  which  are  underirood, 
come  to  be  fupplied :  «  The  lover  got  a  woman  of  greater  fortune, 
thanyk?  fiL-ast  lukimj  he  had  miffed.' 

*  Nor  hope  to  be  lefs  miferablc 

B'-  what  I  feekj  but  others  to  make  fuch 

As  /.'  Milton,  P.  L.  ix.   126. 

'  The  fyntax,  fays  Dr.  Bentlcy,  requires,  '  make  fuch  as  me.' 
On  the  contrary,  the  fyntax  neceflarily  requires,  *  make  fuch  as 
/:'  for  it  is  riot,  *  I  hope  to  make  others  fuch,  as  to  make  me :' 
the  pronoun  is  not  governed  by  the  verb  ??;.jket  but  is  the  nomina 
tive  cafe  to  the  verb  am  understood :  '  to  make  others  fuch  as  I  am  :* 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  io9 

See,  thou  do   it  not  :"  that  is,  that  you  would  :" 
"  that  thou  do."  [6J 

The  nominative  cafe  following  the  auxiliary,  or 
the  verb  itfelf,  fometimes  fupplies  the  place  of 
the  conjunction  if,  or  though  :  as,  "  Had  he  done 
this,  he  had  efcaped :"  "  Charm  he  never  fo  [7] 
wifely  :"  that  is,  "  if  he  had  done  this  ;  though 
he  chr;rm." 

Some  conjunctions  have  their  correfpondent  con 
junctions  belonging  to  them;  fo  that,  in  the  fubfe- 
quent  member  of  the  fentence,  the  latter  anfwers 
to  the  former  :  as,  although — -,  yef,  or  neverthelefsy 

whether ,  or;  either or;  neither^  or  nor , 

«0r,    as ,     as ;     exprefling   a    comparifon     of 

equality ;   "  as  white  as    fnow  :"   as ,  fo  ;   ex- 

prefling  a  comparifon  fometimes  of  equality;  "  as 
the  liars,  fo  mall  thy  feed- be;"  that  is,  equal  in 
number  :  but  mod  commonly  a  comparifon  in  re- 
fpedfc  of  quality  •  "  and  it  (hall  be,  as  with  the 
people,  fo  with  the  pried;  as  with  the  fervant,  fo 
with  his  matter:"  "  as  is  the  good,  fo  is  the  fm- 
ner  ;  as  the  one  dieth,  fo  dieth  the  other:"  that 

is,  in  like  manner  :  fo ,  as  ;   with  a  verb  ex- 

L  preffing 

[6]  '  But  it  is  reafon,  the  memory  of  their  virtues  remain  to 
their  pofterity.'  Bacon,  Efiay  xiv.  In  this,  and  many  the  like 
phrafes,  the  conjun&ion  were  much  better  inferted  :  '  that  the 
memory,'  &c. 

{[7]  Never  fo  -This  phrafc,  fgys  Mr.  Johnfon,  is  juftly  ac- 
cuSed  of  folecifm.  U  fliould  he,  ever  ib  wifely  ;  that  is,  ho-w 
wifely y««;rr.  '  Befides,  a  Have  would  not  have  been  admitted 
into  that  fociety,  had  he  had  never  fncb  opportunities.'  Dentley, 
DiflVrt,  on  Phularis,  p,  338, 


no  INTRODUCTION  TO 

preiTmg  a  companion  of  quality;  "  To  fee  thy 
glory,  fo  as  I  have  feen  thee  in  the  fan&uary  :* 
but  with  a  negative  and  an  adjective,  a  compari- 
fon  in  refpecl:  of  quantity;  as,  "  Pompey  had 
eminent  abilities:  but  he  was  neither  fo  eloquent 
and  polite  a  flatefman,  nor  fo  brave  and  fkilful  a. 
general ;  nor  was  he  upon  the  whole  fo  great  a 
man,  as  Csefar:"^ — -r— ,  that;  expreffing  a  con- 
fequence ;  &c  (8)* 

INTERJECTIONS 

[8]  I  have  been  the  more  particular  in  noting  the  proper  ufes 
of  thefe  conjunctions ;  becaufc  they  occur  very  frequently,  and, 
as  it  was  obfcrvcd  before  of  connective  words  in  genera),  are  of 
great  importance  with  refpecl  to  the  ckarnefs  and  beaut)-  of ftyle. 
I  may  add  too,  becaufe  miftakes  in  the  ufe  of  them  are  very  com 
mon  ;  as  it  will  appear  by  the  following  examples 

The  diftributive  conjunction  either  is  fometimes  improperly  ufed 
alone,  imlead  of  the  fimple  disjunctive  or  i  '  Can  the  fi^-tree 
bear  olive  berries?  either  a  vine,  figs?'  James,  iii.  12.  '  Why 
beholdeft  thou  the  mote  that  is  in  thy  brother's  eye?  bur  perceiv 
ed  not  the  beam  that  is  in  thine  own  eye  ?  Either  how  canil  thou 
fay  to  thy  brother,  Brother,  let  me  pull  out  the  mote  that  is  in 
thine  eye;  when  thou  thyfelf  beholdeft  not  the  beam  that  is  thine 
own  eye?'  Luke,  vi.  41,  42.  See  allb  chap.  xv.  8.  and  Phil, 
iii.  12. 

Neither  is  fometimes  fuppofed  to  be  included  in  its  correfpond- 
er,t  nor: 

'  Simois«or  Xanthusfhall  be  wanting  there.'  Dryden. 

*  That  all  the  application  he  could  make,  nor  the  King's  own 
interpofition,  could  prevail  with  her  Majefty.'  Clarendon,  Hift. 
vol.  III.  p.  179.  Sometimes  tu  be  fupplied  by  a  fubfequcnt  ne 
gative:  *  His  rule  holdeth  ftill,  that  nature,  nor  the  engagement 
of  words,  are  not  fo  forcible  as  cuflom.'  Bacoi',Effay  xxxix.  '  The 
King  nor  the  Queen  were  not  at  all  deceived.'  Clarendon,  vol.  If." 
p.  363.  Thefe  forms  of  exprefllon  feem  both  of  them  equally 
improper. 

^  Or  is  fometimes  ufed  inftead  of  nor,  after  neither  :  'This  is  ano 
ther  ufe,  that,  in  my  opinion,  contributes  rather  to  make  a  man 
learned  than  wife,  and  is  neither  capable  of  pleating  the  under- 
ilauding,  or  imagination,'  Addifon,  Dial.  I.  on  Medals. 

Neither 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  in 

INTER  j  LOTIONS  in  Englifli,  have  no  govern 
ment-. 

Though 

Ndtl'cr  for  nor :  *  Neither  in  this  world,  ntiibtr  in  the  world 
to  come,'  Mat.  xri.  33. 

So ,  as,  was  ufecl    by    the    writers  tf  the  laft  century,  to 

exprefs  a  confequence,  inftead  of  i'o ,  iLat:  Examples;  '  And 

the  third  part  of  the  ftars  was  fmitfen1.  /.  as  (that)  the  third 
part  of  ihem  was  darkened'  Rtv.  viii.  12.  "The  relations 
areyi  uncertain,  as  (that)  they  require  a  great  deal  of  examina 
tion."  Bacon,  Nat.  Hilt.  '  So  (as  that)  it  is  a  hard  calumny 
to  affirm — .'  Temple.  '  So  as  (that)  hh  thoughts  might  be 
feen.'  Bentley,  Differt.  «»  .ZEfop's  Fables,  Sr<ft.  vi.  'There 
was  feme-thing  fo  amiable,  and  yet/0  piercing  in  his  looks,  a; 
(that  it)  infpirtd  me  at  once  with  love  und  terror,'  Addil-jn, 
Speft.  No.  63.  'This  computation  being/c  eafy  and  trivia),  as 
(that)  it  is  a  ihame  to  mention  it.'  Swift,  Conduct  of  the  Al 
lies.  '  That  the  Spaniards  \vcrcfo  violently  affected  to  the  Houle 
of  Auftria,  as  (that)  the  whole  kingdom  would  revolt.'  Ibid. 
Swift,  I  believe,  is  the  laft  of  our  good  writer?,  whohasfre- 
tjuently  ufed  this  manner  of  expreflion  :  it  feems  improper,  and 
is  defervedly  grown  obfolete. 

As  inftead  of  that,  in  another  manner;  '  If  a  man  have  that 
penetration  of  judgment,  as  (that)  he  can  difctrn  what  thing?, 
are  to  be  laid  open.'  Bacon,  1'lTay  vi.  'It  is  the  nature  of 
extreme  felf-lovers,  c;  (that)  they  will  fet  an  houfe  on  fire,  and 
it  were  but  to  roaft  their  eggs.'  Id  EfTny  xxiii.  '  They  would 
have  given  him  fuch  fatisfa&ion  in  other  particulars,  as  (that)  a 
full  and  happy  peace  muii  have  enfued.  Clarendon,  Vcl,  11L 
p.  ai4« 

'  I  gain'd  a  fon  •, 
And  fuch  a  f6n,a-r  all  men  haii'd  me  happy.'' 

Milton,  Samf.  Ag, 

*  We  fhould  fufficiently  weigh  the  objects  of  our  hope  ;  whe 
ther  they  be  luch,  as  (that)  we  may  rsafcnably  expedt  from  them 
what  they  propoie  in  their  fruition,  and  whether  they  are  fuch, 
as  we  are  pretty  fure  of  attaining.'  Addifon,  Spe&.  No.  535. 
'France  was  then  difpofed  to  conclude  a  peace  upon  fuch  condi 
tions,  as  (that)  it  was  not  worththe  life  of  a  granadier  to  refufe 
them.'  Swift,  Four  laft  year's  of  the  Queen,  B.  ii. 

As  inftead  of  the  relative  thatt  ii-iy  or  ivbich  ;  "  An  it  had  not 
been  for  a  civil  gentleman,  as  (who)  came  by — ."    Sir  J.  Wittoli, 
in  Congreve'sOid  Bachelor.     'The  Duke  had  not  behaved  with 
that  loyalty,  as  (with  which)  he  ought  to  have  done.'     Claren 
don, 


112  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Though  they  are  ufually  attended  with  nouns 

in 

don,  Vol.  II.  p.  460  « — With  thofe  thoughts  «j  (which)  might 
contribute  to  their  honor  '  Ibid.  p.  565.  '  In  the  order,  as 
they  lie  in  his  preface.'  Middleton,  Works,  Vol.  111.  p.  8. 
It  ought  to  be.  either,  (  in  or^r,  as  they  lie;'  or,  *  in  the  order 
In  ivl-cb  they  lie.'  *  Securing  to  youdtives  a  fucceffion  of  able 
and  worthy  men,  as  (whi.h  cr  who)  may  adorn  this  place.' 
Attcrbt.ry,  sermon?,  rV.  12. 

The  re'ntivt  ibat  inftead  of  PS  ;  '  Such  fharp  replies  that  (a?) 
cofc  him  his  life  in  a  few  monrhs  after  '  Clarendon,  Vol.111. 
p,  179.  And  mftcad  ^  fucb  : — '  If  he  was  truly  that  (fa ch  a) 
J'care  crow,  a:  he  is  now  commonly  painted.  But  I  wifh  I  could 
co  tbst  (fu--h)juftice  to  the  memory  of  our  Phrygian,  (as)  to 
tf^V*  the' painters  to  change  their  pencil.'  Bentiey,  Diflert.  on 
JEfnp's  Fables,  Secl.x. 

'I  he  relative  iulo ,  in  ft e  ad  of  as  :    '  There  was  no  man,  Jo 

furj-Kine,  ivho  did  not  apprehend  fome  ill  conlequence  from  the 
late  change.'  Swift,  Examiner,  No  24.  It  ought  to  be,  eirher, 
*  fu  fanzine,  as  not  to  app,  fb'uc!—^  or,  '  There  was  no  man,  Lciv 
f$ng\j.mejbever>  who  did  not  apprehend.' 

Ai  improperly  omitted  :  '  Cimucer  followed  nature  every 
where  ;  hut  wa~  ncver/t- !:old  (as)  to  go  beyond  her.'  Dryden, 
Preface  to  Fables.  '  Which  no  body  prcfumes,  or  isyi  fatiguine 
(as)  to  hope.1  Swift,  Drap.  Let.  v.  'They  are/;  bold  (as)  to 
pronounce.'  Swift,  Tale  of  a  Tub,  Sect.  vii.  '  That  the  dif- 
courfing  on  politic4  fhall  be  looked  upon  as  (as)  dull  as  talking  on 
ihe  weather.'  Addiion,  Freeholder,  No  38. 

The  conjunction  but  inftead  of  than  :  '  TQ  truft  in  Chrid  is  no 
more  but  to  acknowledge  him  for  God.'  Hobbes-,  Human  Na 
ture,  chap.  xi.  II.  '  They  will  concern  the  female  fex  only,  and 
import  no  more  but  that  iubjfdlion,  they  fhould  ordinarily  be  in, 
to  their  hufbands.'  I,ocke.  '  The  full  moon  was  no  fooner  up, 
and  Ihining  in  aU  its  brightnefs,  but  he  privately  opened  the  gate 
of  parudifc.  Add:fi»n,  Guardian,  No.  167. 

Too ,  tJj.it,  improperly  uftd  as  correspondent  conjun&ionp. : 

{  Whofe  characters  are  too  profligate,  ibat  the  managing  of  them 
ihould  be  of  any  confequence.'  Swift,  Examiner,  No.  24. 

And,  too ,  than  :    '  You  that  are  a  ftep  higher  than  a  Philo- 

fiphcr,  a  divine  ;  yet  have  too  much   grace  and   wit  than  to  be  a 

bifhop.'     Pope,    to  Swift,  Letter  go.     So but:     'Iftheap. 

pointing  and  apportioningof  penalties  to  crimes  be  noty»  properly 
a  conuderation  of  juQice,  but  ratler  (as)  of  prudence  in  the 
l-iw-givcr.'  TilU.tfon,  Serm.  I,  35*  And  to  conclude  \\ichaa 
example,  in  which,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  accuracy  of 

the 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  113 

in  the  nominative  cafe,  [9]  and  verbs  in  the  indi 
cative  mode;  yet  the  cafe  and  mode  is  not  influ 
enced  by  them,  but  determined  by  the  nature  of-" 
the  fentcnce; 

La 

the  esprefiion,  the  juftnefsof  the  obfervation  will  be  atknowkdg- - 
ed;  which  may  fervealib  as  :in  apology  for  this  and  many  oftfie 
preceding  notes  :  '  No  errors  are  fo  trivial,  but  they  defcrve  to  : 
be  mended.'  Pope  to  Stecle,  Letter  9. 

[9]  «  Ah  me  !'  feems  fo  be  a   phrafe  of  the  fame  nature  with- 
'  Wo  is  me  !'  fcr-tkc  refcluticn  of  which  fee  above^  p,  98.  note.- 


PUNCTUATION; 


xi4  INTRODUCTION  TO 

PUNCTUATIO  N. 

UNCTUATION  is.  the  art  of  marking  in 
writing  the  feveral  paufes,  or -rcfts,  between 
fentences,  and  the  parts  of  fentences,  according 
to.their  proper  quantity  or  proportion,  as  they  are 
exprefied  in  a  juft  and  accurate  pronunciation. 

As  the  feveral  articulate  founds,  the  fyllabies 
and  words,  of  which  fentences  confift,  are  mark 
ed  by  letters  j  fo  the  refts  and  paufes,  between 
fentences  and  their  parts,  are  marked  by  points. 

But,  though  the  feveral  articulate  founds  are 
pretty  fully  and  exactly  marked  by  Letters  of 
known  and  determinate  power  •,  yet  the  feveral 
paufes,  which  are  ufed  in  a  juft  pronunciation  of 
difcourfe,  are  very  imperfectly  expreffed  by  points. 

For  the  different  degrees  of  connexion  between 
the  feveral  parts  of  fentences,  and  the  different 
caufes  in  a  jull  pronunciation,  which  exprefs  thofe 
degrees  of  connection  according  to  their  proper 
value,  admit  of  great  variety  ;  but  the  whole 
number  of  points,  which  we  have  to  exprefs  this 
variety,  amounts  only  to  four. 

Hence  it  is,  that  we  are  under  a  neceffity  of 
exprefling  paufes  of  the  fame  quantity,  on  differ 
ent  occafions,  by  different  points  ;  and  more  fre 
quently,  of  expreffing  paufes  of  different  quantity 
by  the  fame  points. 

So  that  the  doctrine  of  punctuation  mutt  needs 
be  very  imperfect :  few  prccife  rules  can  be  given, 

which 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  115 

which  will  hold  without  exception  in  all  cafes  ; 
but  much  rnuft  be  left  to  the  judgment  and  tafte 
of  the  writer. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  a  greater  number  of 
marks  were  invented  to  exprefs  all  the  poffible 
different  paufes  of  pronunciation  ;  the  doctrine  of 
them  would  be  very  perplexed  and  difficult,  and 
the  ufe  of  them,  would  rather  embarrafs  than 
amfl  the  reader. 

It  remains  therefore,  that  we  be  content  with 
the  rules  of  punctuation,  laid  down  with  as  much 
exactnefs,  as  the  nature  of  the  fubject  will  admit : 
fuch  as  may  ferve  for  a  general  direction,  to  be 
accommodated  to  different  occafions  ;  and  to  be 
fupplied,  where  deficient,  by  the  writer's  judg 
ment. 

The  feveral  degrees  of  connection  between 
fentences,  and  between  their  principal  conftruc- 
tive  parts,  rhetoricians  have  confidered  under  the 
following  diftinctions,  as  the  mod  obvious  and 
remarkable  :  the  Period,  Colon,  Semicolon,  and 
Comma. 

The  period  is  the  whole  fentence  complete  in 
hfelf,  wanting  nothing  co  make  a  full  and  perfect 
fenfe,  and  not  connected  in  conftruttion  with  a 
fubfequent  fentence. 

The  colon  or  member,  is  a  chief  conftructive 
part,  or  greater  divifion  of  a  fentence. 

The  femicolon  or  half  member,  is  a  lefs  con 
ftructive  part  or  fubdivifion;  of  a  fentence  or 
member.  A 


i       .     t 

I       is  thus  marked 


ji6  INTRODUCTION  TO 

A  fentence  or  member  is  again  fubdivided  inter 
commas   or   fegments  ;   which   are  the  lead  con- 
ftrudUve   fenfe   of  a  fentence  or  member,  in  this 
way   of  confulering  it  ;   for   the   next  fubdivifioiv 
would   be   the  resolution   of  it   into  phrafes  and 
words. 

The  grammarians  have  followed  this  divifion 
of  the  rhetoricians,  and  have  appropriated  to  each 
of  thefe  diflinclions  its  mark,  or  point  ;  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  part  of  the  fentence, 
which  it  is  employed  to  diftinguifii  ;  as  follows  *, 

The  Period  f. 

The  Colon 

H-M     o      •     i 
The  Semicolon 

The  Comma  j 

The  proportional  quantity  or  time  of  the  points, 
with  refpecl:  to  one  another,   is  determined  by  the 
following  general  rule  :  The  Period  is  a-paufe  in 
quantity   or  duration   double   of  the   colon  j   the 
colon  is   double   of  the  femicolon  ;   and  the  femi-- 
colon  is  double  of  the  commtu.     So  that  they  are 
in  the  fame  proportion  to  one  another,   as  the  fe- 
mibreve,  the  minim,   and   the   crotchet>  and  the 
quaver,  in  mufic.      The  precife  quantity,  or  du-- 
ration,  of  each  paufe  or  note  cannot  be  deiined  5.;. 
for  that  varies  with  the  time  ;  and  both  in  difcourfe 
and  mufic,  the  fame  compofition  may  be  rehearfed 
in  a   quicker  or  a  flower   time  :  but  in  mufic  the 
proportion   between   the   notes  remains  ever  the  ' 
fame  j  and  in  difeourfe,  if  the  doclrine.  of  punc 

tuation  * 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  117 

tuation  were  exaft,  the  proportion  between  the 
paufes  would  be  ever  invariable. 

The  points  being  then  defigned  to  exprefs  the 
paufes,  which  depend  on  the  different  degrees  of 
connection  between  fentences,  and  between  their 
principal  conftruclive  parts  >  in  order  to  under- 
ftand  the  meaning  of  the  points,  and  to  know  how 
to  apply  them  properly,  we  muft  confider  the 
nature  of  the  fentence,  as  divided  into  its  princi 
pal  conftrudlive  parts  ;  and  the  degrees  of  connec 
tion  between  thofe  parts,  upon  which  fuch  divi- 
fion  of  it  depends. 

To  begin  with  the  leaft  of  thefe  principal  con- 
ftruclive  parts,  the  Comma.  In  order  the  more 
clearly  to  determine  the  proper  application  of  the 
point  which  marks  it,  we  muft  diftinguifh  between 
an  imperfect  phrafe,  a  fimple  fentence,  and  a 
compounded  fentence. 

An  imperfect:  phrafe  contains  no  afiertion,  or 
does  not  amount  to  a  proportion  or  fentence. 

A  fimple  fentence  has  but  one  fubjecl:,  and  one 
finite  verb. 

A  compounded  fentence  has  more  than  one 
fubjecl:,  or  one  finite  verb,  either  cxpreffed  or 
underftood  j  or  it  confifts  of  two  or  more  fimple 
fentences  connecled  together. 

In  a  fentence,  the  f object  and  the  verb  may  be 
each  of  them  accompanied  with  feveral  adjuncts  ; 
as  the  object,  the  end,  the  circumftances  of  time, 
place,  anj  manner,,  and  the  like  :  and  this,  eithey 

immediately 


ir8  INTRODUCTION  TO 

immediately  or  mediately  ;  that  is,  by  being  doit- 
neded  with  fomething  which  is  conneded  with 
fome  other  j  and  fo  on. 

If  the  feveral  adjunds  afFed  the  fubjed  or  the 
verb  in  a  different  manner,,  they  are  only  fo  many 
imperfect  phrafes  \  and  the  fentence  is  fimple. 

A  fimple  fentence  admits  of  no  point  by  which 
it  may  be  divided,  or  ciiltinguifhed  into  parts. 

If  the  feveral  adjuncts  affed  the  fubjed  or  verb 
in  the  fame  ma-nner,  they  may  be  refolved  into  fo 
many  fimple  fentences ;  the  fentence  then  becomes 
compounded,  and  it  mud  be  divided  into  its  parts 
by  points. 

For  if  there  are  feveral  fubjeds  belonging  in  the 
fame  manner  to  one  verb,  or  feveral  verbs  belong 
ing  in  the  fame  manner  to  one  fubjed,  the  fubjeds 
and  verbs,  are  fliil  to  be  accounted  equal  in  num 
ber:  for  every  verb  rr.uft  have  its  fubjed  and  every 
fubjed  its  verb;  and  every  one  of  the  fubjefrs  or 
verbs,  fhould  cr  may  have  its  point  of  diflindion, 

EXAMPLES. 

"  The  paffion  for  praife  produces  excellent 
cffe&s  in  women  of  fenfe."  Addifon,  Sped.  No. 
73.  In  this  fentence  pn$on  is  the  fubjed,  and 
produces  the  verb :  each  of  which  is  accompanied 
and  conneded  with  its  adjunds.  The  fubjed  is 
not  paffion  in  general,  but  a  particular  paffion  de 
termined  by  its  adjund  of  fpecification,  as  we 
may  call  it,  the  paffiony^r  praife.  So  likewife  the 
verb  is  immediately  conneded  with  its  objedj 

excellent 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  119 

excellent  effects;  and  mediately,  that  is,  by  the 
•intervention  of  the  word  effeEiS)  with  •women,  the 
fubjedl  in  which  thefe  effects  are  produced; 
which  again  is  connected  with  its  adjunct  of  fpe~ 
clfication ;  for  it  is  not  meant  of  women  in  gene 
ral,  but  of  women  of  fenfe  only-  Laftly,  it  is  to 
be  obferved,  that  the  verb  is  connected  with  each 
of  thefe  feveral  adjuncts  in  a  different  manner  : 
namely,  with  effects,  as  the  object;  with  women, 
as  the  fubject  of  them;  with  fenfe,  as  the  quality 
or  characteriftic  of  thofe  women.  The  adjuncts 
therefore  are  only  fo  many  imperfect  phrafes  ; 
the  fentence  is  a  dm  pie  fentence,  and  admits  of 
no  point,  by  which  it  may  be  diftinguiilied  into 
parts. 

"  The  pa  (lion  for  praife,  which  is  fo  very  ve 
hement  in  the  fair  fex,  produces  excellent  effects 
in  women  of  fenfe."  Here  a  new  verb  is  intro 
duced,  accompanied  with  adjuncts  of  its  own ;  and 
the  fubjecl  is  repeated  by  the  relative  pronoun 
ivhicb.  It  now  becomes  a  compounded  fentence, 
made  up  of  two  fimple  fentences,  one  of  which 
is  inferted  in  the  middle  of  the  other  ;  it  muft 
therefore  be  diftinguifhed  into  its  component 
parts  by  a  point  placed  on  each  fide  of  the  additi 
onal  fentence. 

"  How  many  inftances  have  we  [in  the  fair 
fex]  of  chaftity,  fidelity,  devotion?  How  many 
ladies  diftinguiih  themfelves  by  the  education  of 
their  children,  care  of  their  family,  and  love  of 

their 


120  INTRODUCTION  TO 

their  hufbands  :  which  are  the  g.-eat  qualities  and 
atchievements  of  \vomankind:  as  the  making  of 
war,  the  carrying  on  of  traffic,  the  admimftration 
of  juftice,  are  thofe  by  which  men  grow  famous, 
and  get  themfelves  a  name, 

Ibid. 

In  the  fir  (I  of  thcfe  two  fentences,  the  adjuncts 
chajlityy  fidelity  t  divcthn,  are  connected  with  the 
verb  by  the  word  injiances  in  the  fame  manner, 
and  in  effect  make  ib  many  diftintl:  fentences  :" 
How  many  inilances  have  we  of  chaftity  ?  How 
many  instances  have  we  of  fidelity  ?  How  many 
instances  have  we  of  devotion?"  They  mufb  there 
fore  be  feparated  from  one  another  by  a  point. 
The  fame  may  be  faid  of  the  adjuncts,  "  educa 
tion  of  their  children,  &c."  in  the  former  part 
of  the  next  fentence  :  as  likewife  of  the  feveral 
fubjccts,  "  the  making  of  war,  &c."  in  the  lat 
ter  part,  which  have  in  effect  each  their  verb ; 
for  each  of  thefe  (<  is  an  atchievement  by  which 
men  grow  famous." 

As  fentences  themfelves  are  divided  into  fimple 
and  compounded,  fo  the  members  of  fentences 
may  be  divided  likewife  into  fimple  and  com 
pounded  members :  for  whole  fentences,  whether 
fimple  or  compounded,  may  become  members  of 
other  fentences,  by  means  of  fome  additional 
connection. 

Simple  members  of  fentences  clofely  connefted 
together  in  one  compounded  member  or  fentence, 

are 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  zAi 

are  diftinguifhed  or  feparated  by  a  comma,  as  ;in 
the  foregoing  examples. 

So  likewife,  the  cafe  abfolute  ;  nouns  in  oppo- 
fition,  when  confiding  of  many  terms  ;  the  parti 
ciple  with  fomething  depending  on  it ;  are  to  be 
diftinguimed  by  the  comma,  for  they  may  be  re- 
folved  into  fimple  members. 

When  an  addrefs  is  made  to  a  perfon,  the 
noun,  anfwering  to  the  vocative  cafe  in  Latin,  is 
diftinguimed  by  a  comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

"  This  faid,  he   form'd   thee,    Adam;    thee, 

O  man, 

Duft  of  the  ground." 

"  Now  morn,  her  rofy  fteps  in  th'  eaftern  clime, 
Advancing,  fow'd  the  earth  with  orient  pearl." 

Milton. 

Two  nouns,  or  two  adje&ives,  connected  by  a 
fingle  copulative  or  disjunctive,  are  not  feparated 
by  a  point :  but  when  there  are  more  than  two, 
or  where  the  conjunction  is  underftood,  they  mull 
be  diftinguimed  by  a  comma. 

Simple  members  connected  by  relatives,  and 
comparatives,  are  for  the  mod  part  diftinguilhed 
by  a  comma,  but  when  the  members  are  (hort,  in 
comparative  fentences ;  and  when  two  members 
are  clofely  connected  by  a  relative  reftraining  the 
general  notion  of  the  antecedent  to  a  particular 
fenfe ;  the  paufe  becomes  almofl  infenfible,  and 
the  comma  is  better  omitted. 

M  EXAMPLES- 


122  INTRODUCTION  TO 

EXAMPLES. 

"  Raptures,  tranfports,  and  extafies,  are  the 
rewards  which  they  confer :  fighs  and  tears,  pray 
ers  and  broken  hearts,  are  the  offerings  which  are 
paid  to  them."  Addifon,  Ibid. 

*   Gods  partial,    changeful,    paflionate,    unjuft  ; 
Whofe  attributes  were  rage,  revenge,  or  luft." 

Pope. 

"  What  is  fweeter  than  honey  ?  and  what  is 
ftronger  than  a  lion  ? 

A  circumftance  of  importance,  though  no  more 
than  an  imperfect  phrafe,  may  be  fet  off  with  a 
comma  on  each  fide,  to  give  it  greater  force  and 
diftinclion. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  The  principal  may  be  defective  or  faulty : 
but  the  confequences  it  produces  are  fo  good,  that, 
for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  it  ought  not  to  be  ex- 
tinguimed."  Addifon,  Ibid. 

A  member  of  a  fentence,  whether  fimple  or 
compounded,  that  requires  a  greater  paufe  than  a 
comma,  yet  does  not  of  itfelf  make  a  complete 
fentence,  but  is  followed  by  fomethirig  clofely  de 
pending  on  it,  may  be  diftinguifhed  by  a  femicolon. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  But  as  this  paflion  for  admiration,  when  it 
works  according  to  reafon,  improves  the  beautiful 
part  of  our  fpecies  in  every  thing  that  is  laudable  ; 
fo  nothing  is  more  definitive  to  them,  when  it  is 
governed  by  vanity  and  folly."  Addifon,  Ibid, 

Here 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  123 

Here  the  whole  fentence  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  feraicolon  ;  each  of  which  parts  is  a 
compounded  member,  divided  into  its  firnple 
members  by  the  comma. 

A  member  of  a  fentence,  whether  iimple  or 
compounded,  which  of  itfelf  would  make  a  com 
plete  fentence,  and  fo  requires  a  greater  paufe 
than  a  femicolon,  yet  is  followed  by  an  additional 
part,  making  a  more  full  and  perfect  fenfe,  may 
be  diftinguifned  by  a  colon. 

EXAMPLE. 

"  Were  all  books  reduced  to  their  quinteflence 
many  a  bulky  author  would  make  his  appearance 
in  a  penny  paper  :  there  would  be  fcarce  any  fuch 
thing  in  nature  as  a  folio  :  the  works  of  an  age' 
would  be  contained  on  a  few  iheives  :  not  to  men 
tion  millions  of  volumes,  that  would  be  utterly 
annihilated."  Addifon,  Speft.  No.  124. 

Here  the  whole  fentence  is  divided  into  four 
parts  by  colons  :  the  firft  and  laft  of  which  are 
compounded  members,  each  divided  by  a  comma  ; 
the  fecond  and  third  are  fimple  members. 

When  a  femicolon  has  preceded,  and  a  greater 
paufe  is  (till  neceflary,  a  colon  may  be  employed, 
though  the  fentence  be  incomplete. 

The  colon  is  alfo  commonly  ufed,  when  an 
example,  or  a  fpeech  is  introduced. 

When  a  fentence  is  fo  far  perfectly  finimed  as 
not  to  be  connected  in  conftru&ion  with  the  fol 
lowing  fentence,  it  is  marked  with  a  period. 

In 


i24  INTRODUCTION  TO 

In  all  cafes,  the  proportion  of  the  feveral  points 
in  refpecl:  to  one  another,  is  rather  to  be  regarded, 
than  their  fuppofed  precife  quantity,  or  proper 
office,  when  taken  feparately. 

Befide  the  points,  which  mark  the  paufes  in 
difcourfe,  there  are  others  which  denote  a  differ 
ent  modulation  of  the  voice  in  correfpondence  with 
the  fenfs.  Thefe  are 

The  interrogation  point,  ")  C       ? 

rpi                    .  (  thus        \ 

ihe  exclamation  point,  >  ,     ,      < 

rp,                i    /-  \  marked      )       /x 

The  parenthefis,  }  CO 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are 
fufficiently  explained  by  their  names  :  they  are  in 
determinate  as  to  their  quantity  or  time,  and  may 
be  equivalent  i'n  that  refpeft  to  a  femicolon,  a  colon 
or  a  period,  as  the  fenfe  requires.  They  mark 
an  elevation  of  the  voice. 

The  parenthefis  inclofes  in  the  body  of  a  fen- 
tence  a  member  inferted  into  it,  which  is  neither 
necefTary  to  the  fenfe,  nor  at  all  affe&s  the  con- 
ftru&ion.  It  makes  a  moderate  depreffion  of  the 
voice,  with  a  paufe  greater  than  a  comma. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  125 

A    PRAXIS; 

Or,    Example  of  Grammatical  Rtfolution. 

I.    TN  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
Csefar,   Pontius  Pilate  being  governor   of 
Judea,  the  word  of  God   came   unto   John,  the 
ion  of  Zacharias,  in  the  wildernefs. 

2.  And   he   came   into  all   the  country  about 
Jordan,  preaching  the  Baptifm  of  repentance  for 
the  remiflion  of  fins. 

3.  And  the  fame  John  had  his  raiment  of  ca 
mel's  hair,  and  a  leathern  girdle  about  his  loins  5 
and  his  meat  was  locufts  and  wild  honey. 

4.  Then  faid  he  to  the  multitude,   that  came 
forth  to  be  baptized  of  him  :   O  generation  of  vi 
pers,  who  hath  warned  you  to  flee  from  the  wrath 
to  come  ?  Bring  forth  therefore   fruits  meet  for 
repentance. 

5.  And  as  all   men  mufed  in  their  hearts  of 
John,  whether  he  were  the  Chrift,  or  net ;  John 
anfwered,  faying  unto   them  all :  I  indeed   bap 
tize 'you   with  water  \  but  one  mightier  than  I 
cometh,   the   latchet  of   whcfe  fhoes    I    am   not 
worthy  to  unloofe  :  he  {hall  baptize  you  with  the 
Holy  Ghoil  and  with  fire. 

6.  Now  when  all  the  people  were  baptized,   it 
came  to  pafs,  that,  Jefus  alfo  being  baptized  and 
praying,  the  heaven  was  opened,   and  the  Holy 
Ghoft  defcended  in  a  bodily  {hape,  like  a  dove, 

M   ^  ucon 


126  INTRODUCTION  TO 

upon  him  ;  and  lo  !  u  voice  from  heaven  faying  ; 
This  is  my  beloved  ion,  in  whom  I  am  well 
plea  fed. 

1.  In  is  a  prepcfition  •,  the,  the  definite  article; 
fifteenth^    an    adjeclive ;    year,    a    fubftantive,    or 
noun,  in  the  objective  cafe,  governed  by  the  pre- 
pofition  in;  of,  a  prepofition;   the  reign,   a  fub 
ftantive,  obj^ltive   cafe,  governed  by  the  prepo- 
fitioii    of  i   of  Tiberius    Cxfar,  both    fubftantives, 
proper   names,  government  and   cafe  as  before ; 
Pontius  Pilate,   proper  names ;   being,  the   prefent 
participle  of  the  verb  neuter  to  be  ,•  governor,  a  fub 
ftantive  ;   of  'J ude a,  a  proper  name,   government 
and  cafe  as  before  :   Ponlius  Pilate  being  governor,  is 
the  cafe  abfolute  ;  that   is,  the   nominative   cafe 
with  a  participle  without  a  verb  following  and 
agreeing  with  it ;  the  meaning  is   the   fame   as, 
ivken  Pilate  was  governor  :  the  word,  a  fubftantive  ; 
of  God,  a  fubftantive  $  came,  a  verb  neuter,  indi 
cative  mode,  paft  time,  third  perfon  fingular  num 
ber,  agreeing  with  the  nominative  cafe  ivord  ;  unto 
a  prepofition  ;   John,  a  proper  name  j  the  fon,  a 
fubftantive,  put  in  appofition  to  John  ;   that  is,  in 
the  fame  cafe,  governed  by  the  fame  prepofition 
unto  ;   of  Zacharias,  a  proper  name  ;  in,  a  prepo- 
ikion  ;  the  nvildernefs,  a  fubftantive,  government 
and  cafe  as  before. 

2.  dnd,  a  conjunction  copulative  ;  he,  a  pro 
noun,  third    perfon    fingular,   mafculine  gender, 
nominative  cafe,  (landing  for  John  came,  as  before 

into. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  127 

into,  a  prepofition  ;  all,  an  adjective  j  the  country, 
a  fubftantive  ;  about,  a  prepofition ;  Jordan,  a 
proper  name  ;  preaching,  the  prefenf:  p;ir  iciple  of 
the  verb  active  to  preach,  joined  like  an  a  'jective 
to  the  pronoun  /6<? ;  the  bapt;.f:,i,  a  fubftantive  ia 
the  objective  cafe,  following  ihe  verb  active 
preaching^  and  governed  by  it  :  of  repentance,  a 
fubft.  government  and  cafe  as  before  ;  /or,  a  prep. 
the  remijffion  of  fins,  fubftantives,  the  latter  in  the 
plural  number,  government  and  cafe  as  before. 

3.  And,   (b.  that  is,  as  before)  the  fame,  an  ad 
jective  j    John   (b)  bad,  a  verb  active,   indicative 
mode,  paft  time,   third  perfon  fingular,  agreeing 
with  the  nominative  cafe  John  /   bis,   a  pronoun, 
third  perfon   fingular,   poffeffive  cafe  ;   raiment,  a 
fubftantive  in  the  objective   cafe,  following   the 
verb  active  had,   and  governed  by  it ;   of  camel's,  a 
fubftantive,  pofleflive  cafe ;  bair,  fubftantive,  ob 
jective  cafe,  governed  £y  the  prepofition  cf,  the 
fame  as,  of  the  hair  cf  a  camel;   and,   (b)  a  the  in 
definite  article  ;   leathern,   an   adj.  girdle,  a  fubft. 
about  (b)  kis   (b)  loins,   fubft.  plural  number  ;   and 
his,   (b)   meat,   fubft.    was,  indicative  mode,   paft 
time,  third  perfon  fingular  of  the  verb  neuter  to  be 
locitfts,  fubft.  plural  number,  nominative  cafe  after 
the  verb    was  3  and,  (b)    wild9  adjective  j  honey% 
fubft. 

4.  Then,  an  adverb  ;  faid,  a  verb  active,  paft 
time,  third  perfon   fingular,    agreeing  with   the 
nominative  cafe  be,  (b.)  to,  a  prep,  the  multitude, 

fubft. 


128  INTRODUCTION  TO 

fubft.  objective  cafe,  governed  by  the  prep,  to  ; 
that,  a  relative  pronoun;  its  antecedent  is  the  mul 
titude  s  camey  (b.)  forth,  an  adverb ^  to,  a  prep, 
and  before  a  verb,  the  fign  of  the  infinitive  mode, 
he  baptized,  a  verb  paflive,  made  of  the  participle 
pailive  of  the  verb  to  baptize,  and  the  auxiliary 
verb  to  be,  in  the  infinitive  mode;  of  him,  pro 
noun,  third  perfon  fingular,  (landing  for  John 
in  the  obje&ive  cafe  governed  by  the  prepofition 
of;  0,  an  interjection ;  generation,  fubftantive, 
nominative  cafe  ;  cf  vipers  fubft.  plural  number  ; 
•why  an  interrogative  pronoun :  hath  warned,  a 
verb  active,  prefent  perfect  time,  made  of  the 
perfect  participle  warned ',  and  the  auxiliary  verb 
hath,  third  perfon  fingular,  agreeing  with  the 
nominative  cafe  ;  'who,  you,  pronoun  fecond  per 
fon  plnral,  objective  cafe,  following  the  verb 
active  'warned,  and  governed  by  it  ;  to  fee,  verb 
neuter,  infinitive  mode  ;  from,  a  prep,  the  wrath, 
fub.  objective  cafe,  governed  by  the  prey,  from  ,• 
to  come,  verb  neuter,  infinitive  mode  ;  bring)  verb 
active,  imperative  mode,  fecond  perfon  plural, 
agreeing  with  the  nominative  cafe  ye  underftood  ; 
as  if  it  were,  bring  ye  :  forth  an  adverb  ;  therefore, 
a  conjunction  ;  fruits,  a  fubft.  plural,  objective 
cafe,  following  the  verb  active  bring,  and  governed 
by  it ;  meet  an  adjective,  joined  to  fruits,  but 
placed  after  it,  becaufe  it  has  fomething  depend 
ing  on  it ;  for  repentance,,  a  fubft,  governed  by  a 
proportion,  as  before. 

5- 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  120, 

5.  Andy  (b.)  as,  a  conjunction  ;  ally  (b.)  men, 
fubft.  plural  number  •,  mufed,  a  verb  neuter,  paft 
time,  third  perfon  plural,  agreeing  with  the  nomi 
native  cafe  men;  in,  (b.)  their,  a  pronominal 
adjective,  from  the  pronoun  they ;  hearts,  fubft. 
plural  number,  objective  cafe  governed  by  the 
prep,  in;  of  John,  (b.)  whether,  a  conjunction ; 
he,  (b.)  were,  fubjun&ive  mode,  governed  by 
the  conjunction  •whether,  paft  time,  third  perfon 
fmg.  of  the  verb  to  be,  agreeing  with  the  nomi 
native  cafe  he ;  the  Chrifl,  fubil.  nominative  cafe 
after  the  verb  ivere ;  or,  a  disjunctive  conjunc 
tion,  correfponding  to  the  preceding  conjunction 
whether;  not,  an  adverb ;  John,  (b.)  anf'wered,  a 
verb  neuter,  indicative  mode,  paft  time,  third 
perfon,  fing.  agreeing  with  the  nominative  cafe 
John ;  fayingy  prefent  participle  of  the  verb 
active  to  fay,  joined  to  the  fubftantive  John ,-  untot 
(b.)  them,  a  pronoun,  third  perfon  plural,  objec 
tive  cafe,  governed  by  the  prepofition  unto ;  all, 
(b.)  1,  pronoun,  firft  perfon  fingular  ;  indeed,  an 
adverb,  baptize,  a  verb  active,  indicative  mode, 
prefent  time,  firft  perfon  fmgular,  agreeing  with 
the  nominative  cafe  I;  you,  pronoun,  fecond  per 
fon  plural,  objective  cafe,  following  the  verb 
active  baptize,  and  governed  by  it  •,  with,  a  prep. 
water,  fubft.  but  a  disjunctive  conjunction  ;  one, 
a  pronoun,  ftanding  for  fome  perfon  not  mention 
ed  by  name  ;  mightier,  an  adjective  in  the  com 
parative  degree,  from  the  pofitive  mighty  ;  than, 


130  INTRODUCTION  TO 

a  conjunction,  ufed  after  a  comparative  word  ;  I, 
(b.)  the  verb  am  being  underftood  >  that  is,  than 
lam;  cometh,  a  verb  neuter,  indicative  mode, 
prefent  time,  third  perfon  fing,  agreeing  with  the 
nominative  cafe  one;  the  latchet,  fubft.  of,  (b.) 
ivhofe,  pronoun  relative,  one  being  the  antecedent 
to  it,  in  the  poiTeffive  cafe;  floes,  fubft.  plural ; 
1,  (b.)  am,  indicative  mode,  prefent  time,  fir II 
perfon  fing.  of  the  verb  to  be,  agreeing  with  the 
nominative  cafe,  //  not,  (b.)  'worthy,  an  adjec 
tive  ;  to  vnloofe,  a  verb  a£tive,  in  the  infinitive 
mode,  governing  the  fubftantive  foichet,  in  the 
objective  cafe ;  ke,  (\>.)  flail  baptize,  a  verb  active, 
indicative  mode,  future  time,  made  by  the  aujc- 
iliaryyvW/,  third  perfon  fing.  agreeing  with  the 
nominative  cafe  he's  you,  (b.)  with  the,  (b  )  Hety, 
an  adjeclive  ;  Ghoft,  a  fubfl.  and  with,  (b.)Jire, 
a  fubitantive  5,  this  and  the  former  both  in  the 
objective  cafe  governed  by -the  prep,  with- 

6.  NGIV, .an  adverb;  ivben,  a  conjun£tion-;  all, 
$>.}  the  people,  a  fubfl.  iv ere  baptized,  a  verb  paf- 
five,  made  of  the.  auxiliary  verb  to  &?  joined  with 
the  participle  paffive  of  the  verb  to  baptize,  indica 
tive  mode,  pail  time,  third  perfon  plural,  agree 
ing  with  the  nominative  cafe  fingular  people,  being 
a  noun  of  multitude,  //,  pronoun,  third  perfon 
fmguiar,  neuter  gender,  nominative  cafe ;  came, 
(b.)  to  pafs,  verb  neuter,  infinitive  mode  ;  that, 
a  conjunction;  Jefus,  a  proper  name;  alfo,.  an 
adverb ;  being,  piefent  participle  of  the  verb  to 

be; 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  131 

be ;  baptized,  participle  pafiive  of  the  verb  to  bap 
tize  ;   and,  (b.)  praying,  prefent  participle  of  the 
verb  neuter  to  pray  ;    Jefns  being  baptized  and  pray 
ing  is  the    cafe  abfolute,  as  before ;  the  heaven, 
fubftantive;   was  opened,  verb   paflive,  indicative 
mode,  pad  time,  third  perfonal  fingular,  agree 
ing  with  the  nominative  cafe  heaven,  the  auxiliary 
verb  to  be,  being  joined  to  the  participle  paflive, 
as  before;  and  the  Holy  Ghofl,  (b.)  dtfcended,  verb 
neuter,  indicative  mode,  pad  time,  third  perfon 
fingular,  agreeing  with  the  nominative  cafe  Ghofl  ; 
in  a,  (b.)<  bodily,  an   adjective  ;  faape,  a  fubftan 
tive  ;   like,    an  adjective  ;  a  dove,  a    fubftantive, 
objective  cafe,  the  prepofition  to  being  underftood, 
that   is,  like   to  a  dove ;   upon,  prepofition ;  him, 
pronoun,    third   perfon   fingular,    objective   cafe 
governed  by  the  prepofition  upon  ;  and,  (b.)  lo,  an 
interjection  ;  a  voice,  fubftantive,  nominative  cafe, 
there  ivas,  being  underftood  ;  that  is,  there  ivas 
a  voice :  from,  prepofition ;   Heaven,  fubftantive, 
objective  cafe  ;   $•)  faying*  (bO  fhis,  a  pronomi 
nal  adjective,  perfon  being   underftood ;  //,  indi 
cative  mode,  prefent  time,  of  the  verb  to  be,  third 
perfon    fingular,    agreeing  with   the  nominative 
cafe  this;    my,  a  pronominal  adjective:  beloved, 
an  adjective  5   Son,  a  fubftantive,  nominative  cafe 
after  the   verb  //;   in,  (b.)  ivhom,  pronoun  rela 
tive,  objective  cafe  governed  by  the  prepofition 
in,  the  fubftantive  Son  being  its  antecedent ;   /  am, 
(b.)  well,  an  adverb ;  pleafed,  the  paflive  participle 

of 


13* 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


of  the  verb  to  pleafe,  making  with  the  auxiliary 
verb  am  a  paflive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mode, 
prefent  time,  firft  perfon  fmgular>  agreeing  with 
the  nominative  cafe  /. 


